The cold war on Canadian soil: Militarizing a northern environment

Environmental History

Volumn 12, Issue 4, 2007, Pages 920-950

  Lackenbauer, P Whitney ^a   Farish, Matthew ^b  

^a ST JEROME S UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; LANDSCAPE; MILITARY INTERVENTION; MODERNIZATION; POLITICAL HISTORY;

CANADA; NORTH AMERICA;

EID: 37349007478     PISSN: 10845453     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/envhis/12.4.920     Document Type: Article

References (181)

1. J. Tuzo Wilson, Ωinter Manoeuvres in Canada," Canadian Geographical Journal 32 (1946): 88-100; quote on 89-92.
2. See Defence Research Northern Laboratory, 1947-1965 (Ottawa: Defence Research Board, Department of National Defence, 1966).
3. On Musk-Ox, see Hugh A. Halliday, "Exercise'Musk Ox': Asserting Sovereignty'North of 60'," Canadian Military History 7 (1998): 37-44;
4. and Kevin M. Thrasher, "Exercise Musk Ox: Lost Opportunities" (MA Thesis, Department of History, Carleton University, 1998).
5. In this essay we will deliberately follow the loose strategic parlance of the period and occasionally use the terms "North" and "Arctic" interchangeably, with exceptions where geographic specificity is required. we are aware of the hazards accompanying this decision, but our intention here is emphatically not to delimit a distinct "northern" or "Arctic" region, as much as such differentiation can be avoided.
6. For a unique example, see Tom Vanderbilt, Survival City. Adventures Among the Ruins of Atomic America (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2002).
7. Rachel Woodward, "From Military Geography to Militarism's Geographies: Disciplinary Engagements with the Geographies of Militarism and Military Activities," Progress in Human Geography 29 (2005): 718-40.
8. For a historical perspective, see John Childs, "A Short History of the Military Use of Land in Peacetime," War in History 4 (1997): 81-103.
9. The reference here is to the literature spawned by Ulrich Beck, Risk Society. Towards a New Modernity, trans. Mark Ritter (London: Sage, 1992).
10. Indeed, there are few adequate histories of Cold War Canada; the standard reference is Reg Whitaker and Gary Marcuse, Canada and the Cold War: The Making of a National Insecurity State, 1945-1957 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994).
11. See, also, Reg Whitaker and Steve Hewitt, Canada and the Cold War (Toronto: Lorimer, 2003);
12. Robert Bothwell, The Big Chill: Canada and the Cold War (Toronto: Canadian Institute of International Affairs, 1998);
13. and Greg Donaghy, ed., Canada and the Early Cold War, 1943-1957 (Ottawa: Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, 1998).
14. Kenneth C. Eyre, "Forty Years of Military Activity in the Canadian North, 1947-87," Arctic 40 (1987): 292-99; quote on 294.
15. Kenneth S. Coates and William R. Morrison, The Alaska Highwayin World War II: The U.S. Army of Occupation in Canada's Northwest (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992), 8-9.
16. Historians have begun to uncover the effects of war on former combat zones. See, for example, Donovan Webster, Aftermath: The Remnants of War (New York: Pantheon, 1998).
17. See, for instance, Valerie L. Kuletz, The Tainted Desert. Environmental and Social Ruin in the American West (NewYork: Routledge, 1998);
18. Gregory Hooks and Chad L. Smith, "The Treadmill of Destruction: National Sacrifice Areas and Native Americans," American Sociological Review 69 (2004): 558-75.
19. See Patricia N. Limerick, "The Adventures of the Frontier in the Twentieth Century," in The Frontier in American Culture, ed. James R. Grossman (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1994), 67-102.
20. James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), 2.
21. Kenneth C. Eyre, "Custos Borealis: The Military in the Canadian North" (PhD thesis, Department of War Studies, Kings College, University of London, 1981), 45-79. Most planes were equipped with skis or floats, and construction was limited to grass or gravel airstrips and makeshift buildings.
22. See "The History of Military Construction in the Canadian North from 1945 to 1980," Department of National Defence, Directorate of History and Heritage (hereafter DHH), Ottawa, file 80/127, Volume 1.
23. On these projects, see StanleyW. Dziuban, Military Relations between the United States and Canada, 1939-1945 (Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army, 1959);
24. C. P. Stacey, Arms, Men and Governments (Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1970), 379-88;
25. and Shelagh Grant, Sovereignty or Security? Government Policy in the Canadian North, 1936-1950 (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1988).
26. Newfoundland and Labrador did not become a Canadian province until 1949, and was initially just named Newfoundland.
27. "The History of Military Construction," DHH, 2; John N. Cardoulis, A Friendly Invasion: The American Military in Newfoundland, 1940-1990 (St. John's: Breakwater, 1990), 114-29;
28. Library and Archives Canada (hereafter LAC), RG 25, G-1, v. 1993, file 1056-AZ; "World's Largest Airport Operating in Labrador," St Johns Evening Telegram, May 18, 1943; David Bercusion, "SAC vs. Sovereignty: The Origins of the Goose Bay Lease, 1946-52*: Canadian Historical Review 70 (1989): 206-22;
29. John Clearwater, U.S. Nuclear Weapons in Canada (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1999), 123-54;
30. Deputy Minister, Department of National Defence (hereafter DND), to Deputy Minister, Department of Resources & Development, January 27, 1955, LAC, RG 22, Series A-1-a, v.836, f.84-11-11 pt.1.
31. Coates and Morrison, The Alaska Highway in World War II, 85.
32. On the air staging route, see Edwin R. Carr, "Great Falls to Nome: the Inland Air Route to Alaska, 1940-45" (PhD diss., University of Minnesota, 1946).
33. On Canol, see Richard Diubaldo, "The Canol Project in Canadian-American Relations," Canadian Historical Association Historical Papers 1977, 179-95.
34. The phrase is Bruno Latour's; for a spatial consideration, see Michael Heffernan "Mars and Minerva: Centres of Geographical Calculation in an Age of Total War," Erkunde 54 (2000): 320-33.
35. Coates and Morrison, The Alaska Highway in World War Two, 67, 86-100, 158.
36. Philip Godsell, The Romance of the Alaska Highway (Toronto: The Ryerson Press, 1944), 1-3, 45, 159-64.
37. Godsell, Romance, 45, 159-64, 195.
38. It is revealing that Coates and Morrison also entitle their third chapter in The Alaska Highway in World War II "The Native People and the Environment," treating the two subjects as intrinsically connected.
39. A. L. Washburn, "Geography and Arctic Lands," in Geography in the Twentieth Century: A Study of Growth, Fields, Techniques, Aims and Trends, ed. G. Taylor, 3rd ed. (New York: The Philosophical Society, 1957), 267-87; quote on 267.
40. Washburn's chapter was originally published in 1948. The "unknown Arctic" found expression in far more popular texts, such as Pierre Berton's The Mysterious North (New York: Knopf, 1956).
41. For an example, see Leslie Roberts, "The Great Assault on the Arctic," Harper's (August 1955), 37-42.
42. R. A. Howard, Down in the North: An Analysis of Survival Experiences in Arctic Areas (Maxwell AFB, AL: Arctic, Desert, Tropic Information Center, 1953), iii, 1.
43. For more on these topics, see Matthew Farish, "Frontier Engineering: From the Globe to the Body in the Cold War Arctic," The Canadian Geographer 50 (2006): 177-96.
44. Quoted in Hugh A. Halliday, "Recapturing the North: Exercises 'Eskimo', 'Polar Bear' and 'Lemming', 1945," Canadian Military History 6 (1997): 29-38; quote on 38.
45. On Sweetbriar, see "Joint Canadian-United States Exercise Sweetbriar', 1950," Polar Record 6 (1951): 258;
46. Omond M. Solandt, "Exercise Sweetbriar," Speech to the Empire Club of Canada, March 30, 1950 (http://www.empireclubfoundation.com/ details.asp?SpeechID=2633&FT=yes). Solandt was at the time Chairman of Canada's Defence Research Board.
47. See T. Ray, A History of the DEW Line (Maxwell AFB, AL: Air Force Historical Research Agency, Air Defense Command Historical Study 31, n.d.).
48. The political history of North American air defense is covered in Joseph T. Jockel, No Boundaries Upstairs: Canada, the United States, and the Origins of North American Air Defence, 1945-1958 (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1987).
49. This paper can only gesture to the relationship between the DEW Line and native northerners, the subject of a larger project underway by the authors. The best starting points on the social and cultural history of the DEW Line are M. S. Bégin, "Des radars et des hommes: mémoires inuit de la station Fox Main de la DEW Line (Hall Beach, Nunavut)" (MA thesis, Université Laval, 2004);
50. R. Quinn Duffy, The Road to Nunavut: The Progress of Eastern Arctic Inuit since the Second World War (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1988);
51. J. D. Ferguson, A Study of the Effects of the D.E.W. Line Upon the Eskimo of the Western Arctic of Canada (Ottawa: Northern Research Coordination Centre, Department of Northern Affairs and National Resources, 1957);
52. J. N. Harris, "National Defence and Northern Development: The Establishment of the Dewline in the Canadian North" (MA thesis, Simon Fraser University, 1980);
53. and Kevin McMahon, Arctic Twilight (Toronto: James Lorimer, 1988).
54. Distant Early Warning Line Military Geography Support Programme (Ottawa, Joint Intelligence Bureau, January 1955), DHH File 79/82.
55. Scott, Seeing Like a State, 7.
56. James D. Brannian, Frank J. Donohue, and Attilio Baltera, "W. E. Engineering for the DEW Line-I. Siting Design and Construction," Western Electric Engineer 1 (1957): 2-11; quote on 3.
57. J. D. Brannian, "Siting the DEW Line Radar Stations," Engineering and Contract Record 70 (1957): 53-55, 171-78, 195-202, 207-11; quotes on 53.
58. M. S. Cheever, "Construction on the DEW Line," Engineering and Contract Record 70 (1957): 53-57, 193-199; the quote is from p. 53.
59. Excerpt from Western Electric Corporation, "The DEW Line Story in Brief" (Paramus, NJ: Bell Telephone Laboratories, Booklet Rack Service, c1960), reprinted in P. Whitney Lackenbauer, Matthew Farish, and Jennifer Arthur-Lackenbauer, The Distant Early Warning (DEW) Line: A Bibliography and Document Resource List (Calgary: Arctic Institute of North America, 2005), 11.
60. For similar themes, see, also, Richard Morenus, DEW Line: Distant Early Warning, the Miracle of America's First Line of Defense (New York: Rand McNally and Company, 1957).
61. Joint Press Tour, DEW Line, March 26-April 3, 1956, DHH 181.009 (D6587).
62. See, for example, "Temperature, Vapors Kept under Control in DEW Line Buildings," The Globe and Mail, April 24, 1956;
63. Rick Ranson, Working North: DEW Line to Drill Shop (Edmonton: NeWest Press, 2003), 7-18.
64. See Jockel, No Boundaries Upstairs,
65. and Andrew Richter, Avoiding Armageddon: Canadian Military Strategy and Nuclear Weapons, 1950-1963 (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2002), 37-47.
66. House of Commons Debates, April 19 1951, 2173-74.
67. For background, see RG 10, v.6341, f.736-1 pta, LAC;
68. "Canadian Forces Base, Cold Lake, Alberta," (c1960s), DHH 112.3H1.009 (D279);
69. Dan Black, "Combat at Cold Lake," Legion Magazine September/October 2002 (http://www.legionmagazine.com/features /militarymatters/02-09.asp).
70. See Indian Claims Commission, Indian Claims Commission Proceedings vol. 1 (1994), 3-157;
71. and P. W. Lackenbauer, Battle Grounds: The Canadian Military and Aboriginal Lands (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2007).
72. LAC, RG 22, vol. 836, file 84-11-11, part 1.
73. "Canadian Forces Base, Cold Lake, Alberta," DHH;
74. T. Thompson, "Tales of the Bay and Chilly Pond," Airforce 25 (Summer 2001): 34-35.
75. See D. A. Westworth & Associates Ltd., National Defence Environmental Assessment Cold Lake Air Weapons Range vol. 1: Natural Resource Inventory (Edmonton, December 1994);
76. Bel MK Engineering, Department of National Defence Environmental Assessment of NATO Flying Training in Canada-4 Wing Cold Lake, Final Report (Calgary, April 1997), 44-47.
77. See, among other sources, Laura A. Bruno, "The Bequest of the Nuclear Battlefield: Science, Nature, and the Atom during the First Decade of the Cold War," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 33 (2003): 237-60.
78. Assistant Chief, National Parks Branch, to G. W. Rowley, Secy, Advisory Committee on Northern Research, February 10, 1956, and April 10, 1957, LAC, RG 22, vol. 836, file 84-11-11, part 1.
79. Robert F. Legget, "An Engineering Assessment," in The Canadian Northwest: Its Potentialities, ed. Frank Underhill (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1959), 9.
80. Trevor Lloyd, "Canada's Northland," Queen's Quarterly 66 (Winter 1960): 529-37.
81. J. D. Ferguson, "A Study of the Effects of the Distant Early Warning Line Upon the Eskimo of the Western Arctic of Canada" Northern Research Coordination Centre research project (April 1957), 48;
82. Extract from Mr. D.W. Bissett's Report for August and September, 1961, LAC, RG 85, vol. 1360, file 207-6 pt 2; Distant Early Warning Co-Ordinating Committee, Progress Report No. 6, LAC, RG 12, vol. 2407, file 14-13-9-1 pt 4;
83. R.G. Robertson to Vincent W. Farley, Western Electric Company, 4 April 1956, LAC, RG 25, box 5928, file 50210-C-40 pt. 7;
84. Ken Reimer, The Environmental Impact of the DEW Line on the Canadian Arctic: Summary (Victoria: Royal Roads Military College, Environmental Sciences Group), 29-30;
85. William R. Morrison, True North: The Yukon and Northwest Territories (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1998), 137.
86. On illicit hunting, see, for example, Lynden T. (Bucky) Harris, "A Failed Polar Bear Hunt,"
87. and Larry Wilson, "DEW Line War Stories vol. 1," both at www.lswilson.ca/warstories.htm.
88. For context, see J. L. Granatstein and Robert Bothwell, Pirouette: Pierre Trudeau and Canadian Foreign Policy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991), 12-35, 79-81.
89. See the chapters in The Arctic in Question ed. Edgar Dosman (Toronto: 1976).
90. On the American response, see Theodore T. Eliot, Jr., "Information Memorandum for Mr. Kissinger, the White House-Subject: Imminent Canadian Legislation on the Arctic," March 12, 1970, Department of State E.O. 12958, declassified and amended July 12, 2005.
91. House of Commons Debates, October 24, 1969, 39.
92. The important work of Shelagh Grant is essential reading on this subject. See her Sovereignty or Security?
93. and "Northern Nationalists: Visions of 'A New North, 1940-1950," in For Purposes of Dominion: Essays in Honour of Morris Zaslow, ed. Kenneth S. Coates and William R. Morrison (North York, ON: Captus Press, 1989), 47-70.
94. On environmental security, see Simon Dalby, Environmental Security (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002);
95. Jon Barnett, The Meaning of Environmental Security: Ecological Politics and Policy in the New Security Era (London: Zed Books, 2001).
96. See Thomas M. Tynan, "Canadian-American Relations in the Arctic: The Effect of Environmental Influences upon Territorial Claims," Review of Politics 41 (July 1979): 06-17.
97. Christopher Kirkey, "The Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Initiatives: Canada's Response to an American Challenge," International Journal of Canadian Studies 13 (Spring 1996): 41-60, provides abalanced assessment of Canadian-American concerns on the AWPPA.
98. A. Holtz and M.A. Sharpe, "Central Arctic DEW Line Site Inspection, July 18-25, 1984" (Environmental Protection Service, Western and Northern Region, 1984), available at Environment Canada Library;
99. "PCBs cleaned up on DEW Line," Winnipeg Free Press, August 21, 1985;
100. Reimer, Summary, 34-35;
101. Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, Environment Department, "Sources and Pathways," http://www.itk.ca/environment/ contaminants-sources-pathways.php.
102. "Defence in the 70s," reprinted in Canada's National Defence, vol. 1: Defence Policy, ed. Douglas L. Bland (Kingston: School of Policy Studies, Queen's University, 1997), 132;
103. BGen R. M. Withers, "Northern Region Concept for Force Development," 15 June 1971, DND file NR 3185-1 (Comd).
104. See also the Report of the Steering Committee on the Canadian North, "Canadian Forces Policies Objectives and Activities in the Canadian North," December 5, 1969, DHH 73/1223/987, box 52. The military's "major efforts" to avoid polluting the Frobisher Bay area during exercise Patrouille Nocturne, a mock invasion in early 1972, indicated this growing awareness of ecological impacts.
105. See Rick Michon, "Patrouille Nocturne," Canadian Forces Sentinel 8 (1972): 1-11.
106. "Role of the Canadian Armed Forces in Relation to Sovereignty-Report on Consultations with Other Government Departments and Agencies," January 26, 1971, 9.
107. Eyre, "Forty Years," 297-98.
108. See P. W. Lackenbauer, "Aboriginal Peoples in the Canadian Rangers: Canada's 'Eyes and Ears' in Northern and Isolated Communities," in Hidden in Plain Sight: Contributions of Aboriginal Peoples to Canadian Identity and Culture, ed. David Newhouse, vol. 2 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, in press).
109. "The History of Military Construction," DHH, 33;
110. Indian and Northern Affairs 1971/72 Annual Report, 78.
111. On the James Bay hydroelectric and Mackenzie Valley pipeline projects, see Boyce Richardson, Strangers Devour the Land: A Chronicle of the Assault upon the Last Coherent Hunting Culture in North America, the Cree Indians of Northern Quebec, and their Vast Primeval Homelands (Post Mills, VT: Chelsea Green, 1991);
112. Richard F. Salisbury, A Homeland for the Cree: Regional Development in James Bay, 1971-1981 (Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1986);
113. Thomas R. Berger, Northern Frontier, Northern Homeland: The Report of the Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry, rev. ed. (Vancouver: Douglas and McIntyre, 1988);
114. M. O'Malley, The Past and Future Land: An Account of the Berger Inquiry into the Mackenzie Valley Pipeline (Toronto: P. Martin Associates, 1976);
115. and Hans Carlson, "A Watershed of Words: Litigating and Negotiating Nature in Eastern James Bay, 1971-75," Canadian Historical Review 85 (2004): 63-84.
116. For example, the Indian Brotherhood of the Northwest Territories formed in 1969, the Committee for Original People's Entitlement (COPE) in 1970, and Inuit Tapirisat of Canada in 1977. On political developments, see Mark O. Dickerson, Whose North? Political Change, Political Development, and Self-Government in the Northwest Territories (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1992), 105-09.
117. Bothwell and Granatstein, Pirouette, 365, 371-72.
118. See, for example, Carol Giangrande, The Nuclear North: The People, The Regions, and the Arms Race (Toronto: Anansi, 1983), 7, 44-62;
119. C. A. Cannizzo, "Cruise Controversy," Calgary Herald, April 22, 1982;
120. and "Northerners Deserve a Say on Test Flights," Globe and Mail, November 6, 1985.
121. House of Commons, Debates, September 10, 1985, 6462-64.
122. Ron Purver, "The Arctic in Canadian Security Policy, 1945 to the Present," in Canada's International Security Policy, ed. David B. DeWitt and David Leyton-Brown (Scarborough: Prentice Hall, 1995), 94;
123. Elizabeth B. Elliot-Meisel, "Still Unresolved after Fifty Years: The Northwest Passage in Canadian-American Relations, 1946-1998," American Review of Canadian Studies (Autumn 1999): 407-30, esp. 416-17.
124. Georges Erasmus, "Militarization of the North: Cultural Survival Threatened," Information North (Fall 1986): 1;
125. Mary Simon, "Security, Peace and the Native Peoples of the Arctic," in The Arctic: Choices for Peace and Security, ed. Thomas R. Berger (West Vancouver: Gordon Soules, 1989), 36, 67 (emphasis in original).
126. On this connection, see, also, Franklyn Griffiths, "Environment and Security in Arctic Waters," in National Security and International Environmental Cooperation in the Arctic: The Case of the Northern Sea Route, ed. Willy Ostreng (Boston: Kluwer Academic, 1999), 179-204.
127. Department of National Defence, Summary: Goose Bay EIS (Ottawa: DND, July 1989), S-3;
128. Peter Armitage and John C. Kennedy, "Redbaiting and Racism on Our Frontier: Military Expansion in Labrador and Quebec," Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 26 (1989): 798-817, esp. 802-03. Goose Bay had been a major facility throughout the Cold War. The U.S. Strategic Air Command stationed nuclear strike forces at the base in the early 1950s, and RCAF and USAF units began intensive training at an air-to-air firing range by mid-decade. British RAF Vulcan bombers began low-level flying training in 1967. This activity meant economic stability for non-Native residents in this part of Labrador.
129. David Murrell, A Balanced Overall View? Media Reporting of the Labrador Low-Flying Controversy (Toronto: Mackenzie Institute Paper no. 19, 1990), 11-12;
130. H. A. Pickering, "Foreign Policy as an Extra-Territorial Extension of Public Policy: The Development of the 'Military Training Industry' at Goose Bay, Labrador" (PhD diss, Queen's University, 1992);
131. DND, Summary: Goose Bay EIS, S-5-10.
132. Peter Armitage, "Indigenous Homelands and the Security Requirements of Western Nation-States: Innu Opposition to Military Flight Training in Eastern Quebec and Labrador," in The Pentagon and the Cities, ed. Andrew Kirby (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992), 138-42;
133. "Indians Pitch Tents at NATO Base as Battle Over Hunting Rights Escalates," Montreal Gazette, April 22, 1987.
134. For the Innu perspective, see "Chronology of Events Related to Military Flight Training Over Nitassinan (Quebec-Labrador) and Innu Opposition to It," at www.innu.ca.
135. On this theme, see Peter A. Coates, "The Strange Stillness of the Past: Toward an Environmental History of Sound and Noise," Environmental History10 (October 2005), 636-65;
136. and R. Murray Schafer, Soundscape: Our Sonic Environment and the Turning of the World (Rochester, VT: Destiny Books, 1994).
137. For a critical look at this image, see Shepherd Krech III, The Ecological Indian: Myth and History (New York: Norton, 2000).
138. For a contrasting perspective, see Winona LaDuke, All My Relations: Native Struggles for Land and Life (Minneapolis, MN: Honor the Earth Press, 1999).
139. M. J. Niemans, "'For the Future For Every One of Us': Innu Women on Community, Country and Military Low-level Flying in Labrador" (MA thesis, University of Amsterdam, 1995);
140. M. Wadden, "Screaming Jets are Destroying our Culture, Say the Innu of Labrador and Quebec," Montreal Gazette, June 25, 1988;
141. K. Cox, "Pediatrician Sees Trauma among Labrador Children," Globe and Mail, October 9, 1989.
142. Armitage and Kennedy, "Redbaiting and Racism," 807;
143. Murrell, A Balanced Overall View?, 17-18;
144. Mary Barker, "Low-level Military Flight Training in Quebec-Labrador: The Anatomy of a Northern Development Conflict," in Aboriginal Autonomy and Development in Northern Quebec and Labrador, ed. Colin A. Scott (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2001), 233-54, esp. 248-49.
145. Department of External Affairs and International Trade, "Our NATO Commitment: Sharing the Burden" (pamphlet, c. 1989).
146. This synopsis is based upon Armitage and Kennedy, "Redbaiting and Racism," 808-ii. This perceptive article seems to overstate the pervasiveness of "communist conspiracy" arguments against the Innu.
147. DND, Summary: Goose Bay EIS: An Environmental Impact Statement on Military Flying Activities in Labrador and Quebec (July 1989);
148. Barker, "Low-Level Military Flight Training," in Autonomy and Development, 241;
149. Paul Koringand Kevin Cox, "Study Sees Little Harm in Labrador NATO Base," Globe and Mail, November 1, 1989. Aboriginal land claims and defense policy were explicitly excluded from EIS criteria.
150. DND, Goose Bay EIS;
151. Wadden, "Screaming jets";
152. Spaven, "Environmental State," 158-60;
153. FEARO, "Environmental Assessment Panel Reviewing Military Flying Activities in Labrador and Quebec: Compilation of Comments Received from Technical Experts Concerning the EIS" (December 1989);
154. Geoffrey York and Laureen Pindera, People of the Pines: The Warriors and the Legacy of Oka (Toronto: Little, Brown, 1991), 280;
155. K. Cox, "Innu Fighting Back on Challenges to Traditional Lifestyle," Globe and Mail, February 12, 1990.
156. Government of Canada, Canada's Green Plan: Canada's Green Plan for a Healthy Environment (Hull, Quebec: Environment Canada, 1990);
157. Richard Langlais, Reformulating Security: A Case Study from Arctic Canada (Goteborg, Sweden: Goteborg University Humanekologiska skrifter 13, 1995), 150-55.
158. See Christopher S. Wren, "Eskimos View Radar Stations as Blots, Not Blips," New York Times, August 17, 1985.
159. On this theme, see Shelagh D. Grant, "Arctic Wilderness-And Other Mythologies," Journal of Canadian Studies 32 (1998): 27-42;
160. Sherrill E. Grace, Canada and the Idea of North (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2001);
161. and Renée Hulan, Northern Experience and the Myths of Canadian Culture (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2002).
162. "Canadian Military under the Gun Over Pollution," Ottawa Citizen, September 15, 1991.
163. See also "Arctic Cleanup Cost May Hit $300 Million," Toronto Star November 24,1991;
164. Edison Stewart, "Ottawa Targets Arctic Polluters," Toronto Star, April 30, 1991.
165. On this agreement, see Heather Myers and Don Munton, "Cold War, Frozen Wastes: Cleaning up the Dew Line," Environment and Security 4 (2000): 119-38. Actual American payments, which would take the form of a credit to Canada's Foreign Military Sales Trust Account (to purchase American-produced weapons) over a ten-year period, were delayed by congressional opponents.
166. Reimer, Summary;
167. Memorandum of Understanding between DIAND and DND for the Remediation of Distant Early Warning System and North Warning System Sites, 5 July 1989. Reimer et al., 12, distinguish between contaminants ("substances whose presence causes a deviation from the normal composition of the environment") and pollutants ("a substance that is present in greater than normal concentration as a result of human activity and which has a net detrimental effect." PCB clean-up at abandoned DEW Line sites actually began in the mid-ig8os. See Indian and Northern Affairs Canada 1985-86 Annual Report, 28.
168. See, for example, Peter Moon, "Abandoned Bases Ooze Pollutants" (Toronto) Globe and Mail, March 14, 1997;
169. John S. Poland, Scott Mitchell, and Allison Rutter, "Remediation of Former Military Bases in the Canadian Arctic," Cold Regions Science and Technology 32 (2001): 93-105;
170. Leonard J.S. Tsuji et al., "Remediation of Site 050, of the Mid-Canada Radar Line: Identifying Potential Sites of Concern Utilizing Traditional Environmental Knowledge," Canadian Journal of Native Studies 21 (2001): 149-60.
171. On northern militarization as heritage, see David Neufeld, "Commemorating the Cold War in Canada: Considering the DEW Line," The Public Historian 20 (1998): 9-19.
172. See, for instance, Nils Gilman, Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in Cold War America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003).
173. Carolyn Merchant, "Shades of Darkness: Race and Environmental History," Environmental History 8 (2003): 380-94.
174. Tynan, "Canadian-American Relations in the Arctic," 426.
175. Our historical approach clarifies assumptions in recent literature suggesting that the main discursive shift from traditional military security to environmental and human security took place in the late 1980s and 1990s. See, for example, Rob Huebert, "Canadian Arctic Security Issues: Transformation in the Post-Cold War Era," International Journal (1999): 203-29;
176. and Andrew Wylie, "Environmental Security and the Canadian Arctic" (MA thesis, University of Calgary, 2002).
177. Hooks and Smith, "The Treadmill of Destruction."
178. Eyre, "Forty Years," 292.
179. See, for example, Rob Huebert, "Climate Change and Canadian Sovereignty in the Northwest Passage," Isuma (Winter 2001): 86-94.
180. For a dissenting opinion, see Franklyn Griffiths, "The Shipping News: Canada's Arctic Sovereignty Not on Thinning Ice," International Journal 58 (Spring 2003): 257-82.
181. On climate change and the Arctic, see Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA), Impacts of a Warming Arctic (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004).