Insincere promises: The law of misrepresented intent

Insincere Promises: The Law of Misrepresented Intent

Volumn , Issue , 2005, Pages 1-306

  Ayres, Ian ^a   Klass, Gregory ^b  

^a YALE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY LAW CENTER   (United States)

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EID: 84902631193     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Book

References (325)

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2. Grant Gilmore, The Death of Contract 61-93 (1974);
3. Patrick Atiyah, Promises, Morals, and the Law 138-215 (1981).
4. E. Allan Farnsworth, Changing Your Mind: The Law of Regretted Decisions 29 (1998).
5. Charles Fried, Contract as Promise: A Theory of Contractual Obligation 9-10 (1981).
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9. Immanuel Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals 15 (Mary Gregor trans., Cambridge Univ. Press 1998).
10. Oliver W. Holmes, The Path of the Law, 10 Harv. L. Rev. 457 (1897),
11. Lawrence B. Simpson & Richard Duesenberg, 7 Encyclopedia New York Law Contracts § 2116 (1963).
12. Id. See also Note, Fraud-Promissory Misrepresentation-Contract without Intent to Perform, 38 Yale L.J. 544, 545 (1929).
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16. Joseph M. Perillo, Misreading Oliver Wendell Holmes on Efficient Breach and Tortious Interference, 68 Fordham L. Rev. 1085 (2000).
17. Solon D. Wilson, Note, Fraud-Deceit- Purchase of Goods on Credit not Intending to Pay for Them-Implied False Representations, 43 Cent. L.J. 266 (1896);
18. William C. Dennis, Notes on a Disputed Point in the Law of Deceit, 2 Tulane L. Rev. (So. L.Q.) 287 (1917);
19. Francis M. Burdick, Deceit by False Statement of Intent, 3 So. L.Q. 118 (1918);
20. Note, Torts-Deceit-Misrepresentations as to Intention, 1 Wash. L. Rev. 218 (1926);
21. Harold J. Sporer, Note, Fraud-To What Extent Fraud May Be Predicated upon a Broken Promise, 3 Wis. L. Rev. 346 (1926);
22. Note, Criminal Law-Larceny-Distinction Between Common Law Larceny and Obtaining Money by False Pretenses Notwithstanding Statute Treating Both as One Crime, 27 Col. L. Rev. 737 (1927);
23. Note, Criminal Law-Owner's "Intent" to Pass "Title" Precluded Conviction for Larceny, 36 Yale L.J. 1020 (1927);
24. Note, Larceny-By Trick or Device, 22 Ill. L. Rev. 779 (1928);
25. Note, Larceny-Common Law Larceny by Trick and Device-Necessity for Parting with Title, 13 Va. L. Rev. 655 (1928);
26. Note, Larceny Generically, and the Office of a Bill of Particulars in Respect to an Indictment, 1 St. Johns L. Rev. 176 (1928);
27. Note, Fraud-Promissory Misrepresentation-Contract without Intent to Perform, 38 Yale L.J. 544 (1929);
28. Note, Fraud- Misrepresentation of Intention as Actionable Fraud, 78 U. Pa. L. Rev. 788 (1930);
29. Herbert Horn, Misrepresentation of Intention to Pay, 35 Dickinson L. Rev. 27 (1930);
30. Note, Fraud-Promise with Present Intent not to Perform, 18 St. Louis L. Rev. 166 (1932);
31. Note, Bankruptcy-Non-Dischargeable Debt-Purchase of Goods with No Intent to Pay Therefore as Obtaining Property by False Pretense or False Representation, 17 Minn. L. Rev. 658 (1933);
32. Note, Fraud-Promise without Intention to Perform as Constituting Fraud, 17 Minn. L. Rev. 668 (1933);
33. Note, Sales-Fraud-Lack of Reasonable Expectation of Ability to Pay, 46 Harv. L. Rev. 1344 (1933);
34. Note, Contracts-Fraud-Implied Representation of Solvency, 32 Mich. L. Rev. 407 (1934);
35. W. Page Keeton, Note, Fraud-Statements of Intention, 15 Tex. L. Rev. 185 (1937);
36. Note, Deceit-Defenses-Action on False Promissory Representation not within Statute of Frauds, 50 Harv. L. Rev. 694 (1937);
37. John Hamshaw, Note, Fraud and Deceit-Promissory Statements-Present Intent not to Perform, 3 Mo. L. Rev. 69 (1938);
38. Note, Fraud-Misrepresentation of Intention-Promise Unenforceable as Such, 16 Tex. L. Rev. 407 (1938);
39. Note, Fraud-Promissory Representations-Parol Evidence Rule, 16 Tex. L. Rev. 408 (1938);
40. Note, The Legal Effects of Promises Made with Intent not to Perform, 38 Colum. L. Rev. 1461 (1938);
41. Margaret C. Johnson, Note, Contracts-Fraud-Misrepresentation of State of Mind-Parol Evidence, 17 N.C.L. Rev. 32 (1938-1939);
42. Clarence C. Kunc, Note, Fraud-Misrepresentations of Intent, 19 Neb. L. Bull. 39 (1940);
43. Note, False Pretenses-Obtaining Services by Fraudulent Promise of Compensation Made a Misdemeanor, 53 Harv. L. Rev. 893 (1940);
44. Walter Bliss, Note, Fraud Predicated on a Promise Made with Present Intent not to Perform, 13 Rocky Mountain L. Rev. 263 (1941);
45. R. I. Lipton, Note, Torts-Actionable Fraud-Promissory Representation, 24 N.C.L. Rev. 49 (1945);
46. Weymouth G. Lowe, Case Note, Promises Relating to Future Conduct as Misrepresentations of Fact in the Law of Fraud, 15 J. of the Bar Assoc. of Kan. 305 (1947);
47. Herve Racivitch Jr., Comment, False Statement of Intention as an Element of Fraud in Criminal Case, 21 Tulane L. Rev. 639 (1947);
48. Claude B. Brown, State of Mind- A Material Fact, 1 Ark. L. Rev. 156 (1947);
49. W. David Curtis, A State of Mind: Fact or Fancy? 33 Cornell L.Q. 351 (1948);
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51. J. S. Sellingsloh, Note, Fraud-Mis-- representation of Intention to Perform Contractual Promise, 27 Tex. L. Rev. 389 (1949);
52. Robert Wm. Garland, Is Insolvency at Time of Entering into a Contract Fraud in Esse? 11 U. Pitt. L. Rev. 666 (1950);
53. René Pastorek, Comment, Obtaining by False Promises: Proposed Statute, 5 U. Fla. L. Rev. 63 (1952),
54. Gerald H. Goldberg, Note, Does a Promise Made without Intent to Perform It Constitute Fraud in Pennsylvania? 57 Dickinson L. Rev. 143 (1953);
55. Note, The Case for a Law of Promissory Fraud, 53 Colum. L. Rev. 407 (1953);
56. Arthur R. Pearce, Theft by False Promises, 101 U. Pa. L. Rev. 967 (1953);
57. Elliot D. Pearl, Note, Criminal Law: False Promise as False Pretenses, 43 Cal. L. Rev. 719 (1955);
58. Justin Sweet, Promissory Fraud and the Parol Evidence Rule, 49 Cal. L. Rev. 877 (1961);
59. Evan M. Zuckerman, Note, Promissory Fraud in Tennessee: A Wrong without a Remedy, 10 Memph. St. U. L. Rev. 308 (1980);
60. Michael J. Polelle, An Illinois Choice: Fossil Law or an Action for Promissory Fraud? 32 DePaul L. Rev. 565 (1983);
61. George N. Stepaniuk, Note, The Statute of Frauds as a Bar to an Action in Tort for Fraud, 53 Fordham L. Rev. 1231 (1985);
62. Raymond R. Nolasco, Promissory Fraud in Illinois: What Is a Scheme to Defraud? 8 N. Ill. U.L. Rev. 485 (1988);
63. R. Alston Hamilton, Comment, Tennessee's Long-Awaited Adoption of Promissory Fraud: Steed Realty v. Oveisi, 59 Tenn. L. Rev. 325 (1992);
64. Joe Manuel and Stuart James, Tennessee's Theories of Misrepresentation, 22 Memph. St. U.L. Rev. 633 (1992);
65. Lynn C. Tyler, Promissory Misrepresentations: Are They, and Should They Be, Actionable as Constructive Fraud? 39-OCT Res Gestae 17 (1995).
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75. Harry Shulman et al., Law of Torts (4th ed. 2003);
76. Robert E. Keeton et al., Tort and Accident Law (3d ed. 1998);
77. Victor E. Schwartz et al., Prosser, Wade, and Schwartz's Torts (10th ed. 2000);
78. Dawson et al., Contracts (7th ed. 1998);
79. Farnsworth et. al., Contracts (6th ed. 2001);
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82. Charles L. Knapp et al., Problems in Contract Law (5th ed. 2003);
83. Brian A. Blum & Amy C. Bushaw, Contracts (2003).
84. Edward J. Murphy, Richard E. Speidel & Ian Ayres, Studies in Contract Law 519 (6th ed. 2003).
85. Ian Ayres & Barry Nalebuff, The Wrong Ticket to Ride, N.Y. Times, March 24, 2004, at A29.
86. Richard Craswell, Property Rules and Liability Rules in Unconscionability and Related Doctrines, 60 U. Chi. L. Rev. 1, 32-34 (1993).
87. We discuss such cases further in chapter 3, infra pp. 52-55.
88. http://customcritical.fedex.com/us/about/whentouseus.shtml (last visited Aug. 28, 2001).
89. J. L. Austin, How to Do Things with Words (J. O. Urmson & Marina Sbisà eds., 2d ed. 1975);
90. John Searle, Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language (1969).
91. Patrick Atiyah, Promises, Morals and the Law 138-215, esp. 161-64 (1981).
92. E. Allan Farnsworth, Changing Your Mind: The Law of Regretted Decisions 29, 32-34 (1998);
93. The Philosophy of Promising, 88 Mich. L. Rev. 489, 497-98 (1989).
94. Robert Brandom, Making It Explicit: Reasoning, Representing, and Discursive Commitment 67-140 (1994);
95. Wilfrid Sellars, Inference and Meaning, 62 Mind 313 (1953),
96. reprinted in Pure Pragmatics and Possible Worlds: The Early Essays of Wilfrid Sellars (J. Sicha ed., 1980).
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100. Oliver Wendell Holmes, The Path of the Law, 10 Harv. L. Rev. 457 (1897)
101. Note, The Case for a Law of Promissory Fraud, 53 Colum. L. Rev. 407 (1953)
102. Arthur Pearce, Theft by False Promises, 101 U. Pa. L. Rev 967, 1010 (1953).
103. Singhal & Subrahmanyan's Indian Contract Act, vol. 1, 438 (Justice K. Shanmukham ed., 4th ed. 1999).
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115. Mutual Life Insurance Co. v. Hillman, 145 U.S. 285 (1892),
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120. Robert Wm. Garland, Is Insolvency at Time of Entering into a Contract Fraud in Esse? 11 U. Pitt. L. Rev. 666, 668-70 (1950);
121. Herbert Horn, Misrepresentation of Intention to Pay, 35 Dickinson L. Rev. 27 (1930).
122. Raymond R. Nolasco, Note, Promissory Fraud in Illinois: What Is a Scheme to Defraud? 8 N. Ill. U. L. Rev. 485, 488-89 (1988);
123. Michael J. Polelle, An Illinois Choice: Fossil Law or an Action for Promissory Fraud, 32 DePaul L. Rev. 565, 570-71 (1983).
124. Fowler V. Harper et al., The Law of Torts § 7.8, 418 (3d ed. 1996)
125. Walkout at Yale Draws Lawsuit by 102 Students, N.Y. Times, Oct. 26, 1984, at B2.
126. Ian Ayres & Barry Nalebuff, The Wrong Ticket to Ride, N.Y. Times, March 24, 2004, at A29.
127. P. S. Atiyah, The Rise and Fall of Freedom of Contract 733 (1979)
128. John A. Sebert Jr., Punitive and Nonpecuniary Damages in Actions Based upon Contract: Toward Achieving the Objective of Full Compensation, 33 U.C.L.A. L. Rev. 1565, 1613 (1986).
129. Lynn C. Tyler, Promissory Misrepresentations: Are They, and Should They Be, Actionable as Constructive Fraud? 39OCT Res Gestae 17 (1995)
130. Joe Manuel & Stuart James, Tennessee's Theories of Misrepresentation, 22 Memp. St. U. L. Rev. 633, 646-49 (1992)
131. William Williamson Kerr, A Treatise on the Law of Fraud and Mistake 88 (1868)
132. Joe Manuel & Stuart James, Tennessee's Theories of Misrepresentation, 22 Memp. St. U.L. Rev. 633, 646, 651 (1992).
133. Justin Sweet, Promissory Fraud and the Parol Evidence Rule, 49 Cal. L. Rev. 877, 894-96 (1961).
134. Kevin E. Davis, Promissory Fraud: A Cost-Benefit Analysis, 2004 Wisc. L. Rev. (forthcoming).
135. Singhal & Subrahmanyan's Indian Contract Act, vol. 1, 437 (Justice K. Shanmukham ed., 4th ed. 1999)
136. Jean Hampton, A New Theory of Retribution, in Liability and Responsibility: Essays in Law and Morals 377 (R.G. Frey & Christopher W. Morris eds., 1991);
137. Jean Hampton, Correcting Harms Versus Righting Wrongs: The Goal of Retribution, 39 U.C.L.A. L. Rev. 1659 (1992);
138. Weymouth G. Lowe, Case Note, Promises Relating to Future Conduct as Misrepresentations of Fact in the Law of Fraud, 15 J. of the Bar Assoc. of Kan. 305, 305 (1947)
139. Jules Coleman, Risks and Wrongs (1992), especially chapters 16-18.
140. From Promise to Contract: Towards a Liberal Theory of Contract 8-22, 57-65 (2003).
141. Carol M. Rose, Trust in the Mirror of Betrayal, 75 B.U. L. Rev. 531, 535-41 (1995);
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145. Yeon-Koo Che & Donald B. Hausch, Cooperative Investments and the Value of Contracting, 89 Am. Econ. Rev. 125 (1999).
146. Richard Craswell, Precontractual Investigation as an Optimal Precaution Problem, 17 J. Legal Stud. 401, 416-20 (1988).
147. Joseph Farrell & Matthew Rabin, Cheap Talk, 10 J. of Econ. Persp. 103 (1996).
148. Richard Craswell, Contract Remedies, Renegotiation, and the Theory of Efficient Breach, 61 S. Cal. L. Rev. 629 (1988);
149. Robert Cooter & Melvin Aron Eisenberg, Damages for Breach of Contract, 73 Calif. L. Rev. 1432 (1985).
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154. A. Mitchell Polinsky & Steven Shavell, Punitive Damages: An Economic Analysis, 111 Harv. L. Rev. 869 (1998).
155. Richard Craswell, Deterrence and Damages: The Multiplier Principle and Its Alternatives, 97 Mich. L. Rev. 2185 (1999).
156. William Dodge, The Case for Punitive Damages in Contracts, 48 Duke L.J. 629, 636-51 (1999),
157. John Vargo, The American Rule on Attorney Fee Allocation: The Injured Person's Access to Justice, 42 Am. U. L. Rev. 1567 (1993).
158. Arthur Linton Corbin, Corbin on Contracts § 1076 (1964);
159. E. Allan Farnsworth, Farnsworth on Contracts § 12.17, at 288-90 (2d ed. 1998).
160. Douglas J. Whaley, Paying for the Agony: The Recovery of Emotional Distress Damages in Contract Actions, 26 Suffolk U. L. Rev. 935 (1992).
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162. Ian Ayres & Robert Gertner, Filling Gaps in Incomplete Contracts: An Economic Theory of Default Rules, 99 Yale L.J. 87, 101-04 (1989).
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165. Ian Ayres, Optional Law: Real Options in the Structure of Legal Entitlements (forthcoming 2005).
166. Robert Cooter, Prices and Sanctions, 84 Colum. L. Rev. 1523, 1523 (1984).
167. Richard Craswell, Property Rules and Liability Rules in Unconscionability and Related Doctrines, 60 U. Chi. L. Rev. 1 (1993).
168. William H. Kuehnle, On Scienter, Knowledge, and Recklessness under the Federal Securities Law, 34 Hous. L. Rev. 121, 151-75 (1997).
169. Stephen G. Gilles, On Determining Negligence: Hand Formula Balancing, the Reasonable Person Standard, and the Jury, 54 Vand. L. Rev. 813 (2001).
170. William M. Landes & Richard A. Posner, The Economic Structure of Tort Law 162 (1987).
171. Jason S. Johnston, Punitive Liability: A New Paradigm of Efficiency in Tort Law, 87 Colum. L. Rev. 1385, 1395-98 (1987).
172. Ronald A. Cass & Keith N. Hylton, Antitrust Intent, 74 S. Cal. L. Rev. 657, 692-97 (2001).
173. generally Prosser and Keeton on Torts § 105 (5th ed. 1984).
174. Attaching Tort Claims to Contract Actions: An Economic Analysis of Contort, 28 Seton Hall L. Rev. 390, 406-07 (1997).
175. Anthony T. Kronman, Specific Performance, 45 U. Chi. L. Rev. 351 (1978).
176. Keith Hylton, Punitive Damages and the Economic Theory of Penalties, 87 Geo. L.J. 421 (1998).
177. William Williamson Kerr, A Treatise on the Law of Fraud and Mistake 88 [1868]
178. Melville M. Bigelow, A Treatise on the Law of Estoppel 481 (1872).
179. Richard Craswell, Interpreting Deceptive Advertising, 65 B.U. L. Rev. 657 (1985).
180. Kent Greenawalt, Law and Objectivity 110-11 (1992);
181. Michael I. Krauss, Tort Law and Private Ordering, 35 St. Louis U. L.J. 623, 629-30 (1991).
182. Ian Ayres & Robert Gertner, Filling Gaps in Incomplete Contracts: An Economic Theory of Default Rules, 99 Yale L.J. 87 (1989);
183. Ian Ayres & Robert Gertner, Majoritarian vs. Minoritarian Defaults, 51 Stan. L. Rev. 1591 (1999).
184. Ian Ayres & Robert Gertner, The Secrecy Interest in Contract Law, 109 Yale L.J. 1885, 1890-93 (2000).
185. Victor P. Goldberg, Bloomer Girl Revisited or How to Frame an Unmade Picture, 1998 Wis. L. Rev. 1051, 1054 (1998).
186. Richard Craswell, Precontractual Investigation as an Optimal Precaution Problem, 17 J. Legal Stud. 401 (1988).
187. Anthony T. Kronman, Mistake, Disclosure, Information, and the Law of Contracts, 7 J. Legal Stud. 1, 13-14 (1978).
188. Ayres & Gertner, Filling Gaps, supra note 14, at 101-04.
189. Randy E. Barnett, The Sound of Silence: Default Rules and Contractual Consent, 78 Va. L. Rev. 821, 906-11 (1992).
190. Ian Ayres & Stephen Choi, Internalizing Outsider Trading, 101 Mich. L. Rev. 313, 323 & n. 32 (2002).
191. William S. Dodge, The Case for Punitive Damages in Contracts, 48 Duke L.J. 629, 647 (1999).
192. Douglas Laycock, The Death of the Irreparable Injury Rule 256-57 (1991).
193. Stuart MacCaulay, Non-Contractual Relations in Business: A Preliminary Study, 28 Amer. Soc. Rev. 55 (1963).
194. Samuel A. Rea Jr., Efficiency Implications of Penalties and Liquidated Damages, 13 J. Legal Stud. 147, 156-57 (1984).
195. Sanford J. Grossman, The Informational Role of Warranties and Private Disclosure about Product Quality, 24 J.L. & Econ. 461, 471 (1981).
196. Richard Craswell, Property Rules and Liability Rules in Unconscionability and Related Doctrines, 60 U. Chi. L. Rev. 1, 41-42 (1993).
197. Raymond R. Nolasco, Note, Promissory Fraud in Illinois: What Is a Scheme to Defraud? 8 N. Ill. U.L. Rev. 485, 502-03 (1988)
198. Clarence C. Kunc, Note, Fraud-Misrepresentations of Intent, 19 Neb. L. Bull. 39, 44 (1940)
199. Thomas M. Cooley, A Treatise on the Law of Torts § 255 (John Lewis ed., Students' ed. 1907);
200. Howard Oleck, Oleck's Tort Law Practice Manual § 211 (1982).
201. John A. Sebert Jr., Punitive and Nonpecuniary Damages in Actions Based upon Contract: Toward Achieving the Objective of Full Compensation, 33 U.C.L.A. L. Rev. 1565, 1611-13 (1986).
202. W. Page Keeton et al., Prosser and Keeton on the Law of Torts § 109, at 765 (5th ed. 1984)
203. Note, The Case for a Law of Promissory Fraud, 53 Colum. L. Rev. 407, 413-15 (1953).
204. Black's Law Dictionary 576 (7th ed. 1999).
205. Austin Abbott, A Brief on the Modes of Proving the Facts Most Frequently in Issue § 495 (1889).
206. Carlill v. Carbolic Smoke Ball Co., 1 Q.B. 256 (Eng. C.A. 1893).
207. Billy Baker Mobile Homes, Inc. v. Foster, 390 S.W.2d 385 (Tex. Ct. App. 1965),
208. Note, The Case for a Law, supra note 9, at 412.
209. William Shakespeare, King Henry VIII, act 4, sc. 2.
210. E. Allan Farnsworth, Changing Your Mind: The Law of Regretted Decisions 21-24 (1998).
211. Richard A. Lord, Williston on Contracts § 69:42 (4th ed. 2003);
212. Robert William Garland, Note, Is Insolvency at the Time of Entering into a Contract Fraud in Esse? 11 U. Pitt. L. Rev. 666 (1950);
213. Solon D. Wilson, Comment, Fraud-Deceit- Purchase of Goods on Credit with the Intention not to Pay Therefor-Implied False Representations, 43 Cent. L.J. 266 (1896).
214. Meredith Willson & Franklin Lacey, The Music Man, act 2, sc. 6 (1958).
215. Dareh Gregorian, Corpses Piling Up-Crematorium Left Hundreds To Rot for Decades, N.Y. Post, Feb. 18, 2002, at 5.
216. US Diagnostic, Inc. v. Shelby Radiology, P.C., 793 So. 2d 714, 720 (Ala. 2000)
217. Martin R. Gardner, The Mens Rea Enigma: Observations on the Role of Motive in the Criminal Law Past and Present, 1993 Utah L. Rev. 635, 724-32 (1993).
218. W. Page Keeton, Note, Fraud-Statements of Intention, 15 Tex. L. Rev. 185, 198-216 (1937).
219. Robert Prentice, Vaporware: Imaginary High-Tech Products and Real Antitrust Liability in a Post-Chicago World, 57 Ohio St. L. J. 1163 (1996);
220. Samuel Rabino & Thomas E. Moore, Managing New-Product Announcements in the Computer Industry, 18 Indus. Marketing Mgmt. 35 (1989).
221. Sara Robinson, Microsoft and Caldera Settle Antitrust Suit, N.Y. Times, Jan. 11, 2000, at C2.
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224. Fleming James Jr. & Oscar S. Gray, Misrepresentation (pt. 2), 37 Md. L. Rev. 488, 507-8 (1978).
225. Walter C. Somol, Dredging the Safe Harbor for Forward-Looking Statements- An Analysis of the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act's Safe Harbor for Forward-Looking Statements, 32 Suffolk U.L. Rev. 265, 268-75 (1998).
226. William H. Kuehnle, On Scienter, Knowledge, and Recklessness under the Federal Securities Law, 34 Hous. L. Rev. 121, 131-32 (1997).
227. Jason S. Johnston, Communication and Courtship: Cheap Talk Economics and the Law of Contract Formation, 85 Va. L. Rev. 385 (1999);
228. E. Allan Farnsworth, Precontractual Liability and Preliminary Agreements: Fair Dealing and Failed Negotiations, 87 Colum. L. Rev. 217 (1987).
229. Randy E. Barnett & Mary E. Becker, Beyond Reliance: Promissory Estoppel, Contract Formalities, and Misrepresentations, 15 Hofstra L. Rev. 443, 485-95 (1987).
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