Cardiovascular risk stratification and management in pre-diabetes

Current Diabetes Reports

Volumn 14, Issue 6, 2014, Pages

  Færch, Kristine ^a   Vistisen, Dorte ^a   Johansen, Nanna Borup ^a   Jørgensen, Marit Eika ^a  

^a STENO DIABETES CENTER   (Denmark)

Author keywords

2 hour glucose; Cardiovascular disease; Fasting glucose; Impaired fasting glucose; Impaired glucose tolerance; Management; Prediabetes; Prevention; Risk prediction; Risk stratification

Indexed keywords

ACARBOSE; GLUCOSE; HEMOGLOBIN A1C; INSULIN GLARGINE; NATEGLINIDE; RAMIPRIL; ROSIGLITAZONE; ROSUVASTATIN; VALSARTAN; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; GLYCOSIDASE INHIBITOR; GLYCOSYLATED HEMOGLOBIN; HEMOGLOBIN A1C PROTEIN, HUMAN;

AGE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CAUSE OF DEATH; DIABETES MELLITUS; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; HUMAN; IMPAIRED GLUCOSE TOLERANCE; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; META ANALYSIS (TOPIC); MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; MULTICENTER STUDY (TOPIC); ORAL GLUCOSE TOLERANCE TEST; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PREDICTION; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REVIEW; RISK MANAGEMENT; SEX; AGE DISTRIBUTION; BLOOD; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; COMPLICATION; DIABETIC ANGIOPATHIES; FEMALE; GLUCOSE INTOLERANCE; MALE; METABOLISM; RISK FACTOR; RISK REDUCTION; SEX RATIO;

ACARBOSE; AGE DISTRIBUTION; BLOOD GLUCOSE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; DIABETIC ANGIOPATHIES; FEMALE; GLUCOSE INTOLERANCE; GLYCOSIDE HYDROLASE INHIBITORS; HEMOGLOBIN A, GLYCOSYLATED; HUMANS; MALE; PREDIABETIC STATE; RISK FACTORS; RISK REDUCTION BEHAVIOR; SEX DISTRIBUTION;

EID: 84901577868     PISSN: 15344827     EISSN: 15390829     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11892-014-0493-1     Document Type: Review

References (81)

1. International Diabetes Federation. Diabetes Atlas, 5th Edition Update for 2012. 2012.
2. The Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration. Diabetes mellitus, fasting glucose, and risk of cause-specific death. N Engl J Med. 2011;364:829-41.
3. Tabak AG, Herder C, Rathmann W, Brunner EJ, Kivimaki M. Prediabetes: a high-risk state for diabetes development. Lancet. 2012;379:2279-90.
4. Perreault L, Færch K. Approaching pre-diabetes. J Diabetes Complications. 2013; [Epub ahead of print].
5. • American Diabetes Association Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes - 2014. Diabetes Care. 2014;7:S14-80. These guidelines represent the most up-to-date American recommendations on management of diabetes and prediabetes.
6. Tuomilehto J, Lindström J, Eriksson JG, et al. Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:1343-50. (Pubitemid 32378388)
7. Knowler WC, Barrett-Connor E, Fowler SE, et al. Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:393-403. (Pubitemid 34437694)
8. De Vegt F, Dekker JM, Jager A, et al. Relation of impaired fasting and postload glucose with incident type 2 diabetes in a Dutch population: the Hoorn study. JAMA. 2001;285:2109-13. (Pubitemid 32367828)
9. Mooy JM, Grootenhuis PA, de Vries H, et al. Intra-individual variation of glucose, specific insulin and proinsulin concentrations measured by two oral glucose tolerance tests in a general Caucasian population: the Hoorn Study. Diabetologia. 1996;39:298-305. (Pubitemid 26066801)
10. Hulmán A, Færch K, Vistisen D, et al. Effect of time of day and fasting duration on measures of glycaemia: analysis from the Whitehall II Study. Diabetologia. 2013;56:294-7.
11. World-Health, Organization and International Diabetes Federation. Definition and diagnosis of diabetes mellitus and intermediate hyperglycaemia: report of a WHO/IDF consultation. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2006.
12. The International Expert Committee International Expert Committee Report on the Role of the A1C Assay in the Diagnosis of Diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2009;32:1327-34.
13. Alberti KGMM, Zimmet PZ. Definition, diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus and its complications. Part 1: diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Report of a WHO consultation. Diabetic Med. 1998;15:539-53. (Pubitemid 28319935)
14. World Health Organization. Use of Glycated Haemoglobin (HbA1c) in the Diagnosis of Diabetes Mellitus. Abbreviated Report of a WHO Consultation. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO Press; 2011. p. 1-25.
15. Borch-Johnsen K, Colagiuri S, Balkau B, et al. Creating a pandemic of prediabetes: the proposed new diagnostic criteria for impaired fasting glycaemia. Diabetologia. 2004;47:1396-402. (Pubitemid 39232425)
16. Xu Y, Wang L, He J. Prevalence and control of diabetes in Chinese adults. JAMA. 2013;310:948-59.
17. Færch K, Vistisen D. Response to Xu et al. "Prevalence and Control of Diabetes in Chinese Adults". JAMA. 2014;311(2):200.
18. •• Ford ES, Zhao G, Li C. Pre-diabetes and the risk for cardiovascular disease: a systematic review of the evidence. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;55:1310-7. This review and meta-analysis shows that both impaired fasting glucose and impaired glucose tolerance are associated with ∼20% increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease.
19. DECODE Study Group Glucose tolerance and cardiovascular mortality: comparison of fasting and 2-hour diagnostic criteria. Arch Intern Med. 2001;161:397-405.
20. Tominaga M, Eguchi H, Manaka H, Igarashi K, Kato T, Sekikawa A. Impaired glucose tolerance is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease, but not impaired fasting glucose. The Funagata Diabetes Study. Diabetes Care. 1999;22:920-4. (Pubitemid 29241045)
21. Barr ELM, Zimmet PZ, Welborn TA, et al. Risk of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality in individuals with diabetes mellitus, impaired fasting glucose, and impaired glucose tolerance: the Australian Diabetes, Obesity, and Lifestyle Study (AusDiab). Circulation. 2007;116:151-7. (Pubitemid 47057520)
22. Sarwar N, Gao P, Seshasai SR, et al. Diabetes mellitus, fasting blood glucose concentration, and risk of vascular disease: a collaborative meta-analysis of 102 prospective studies. Lancet. 2010;375:2215-22.
23. • Qiao Q, Pyorala K, Pyorala M, et al. Two-hour glucose is a better risk predictor for incident coronary heart disease and cardiovascular mortality than fasting glucose. Eur Heart J. 2002;23:1267-75. This study shows that 2-hour glucose independent of fasting glucose is a significant predictor of cardiovascular disease, whereas fasting glucose does not have an independent effect over 2-hour glucose.
24. Selvin E, Steffes MW, Zhu H, et al. Glycated hemoglobin, diabetes, and cardiovascular risk in nondiabetic adults. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:800-11.
25. Barr EL, Boyko EJ, Zimmet PZ, Wolfe R, Tonkin AM, Shaw JE. Continuous relationships between non-diabetic hyperglycaemia and both cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality: the Australian Diabetes, Obesity, and Lifestyle (AusDiab) study. Diabetologia. 2009;52:415-24.
26. •• Kodama S, Saito K, Tanaka S, et al. Fasting and post-challenge glucose as quantitative cardiovascular risk factors: a meta-analysis. J Atheroscler Thromb. 2012; [Epub ahead of print]. This review and meta-analysis shows that both fasting and postload glucose is associated with cardiovascular disease, but the effect of postload glucose is larger than that of fasting glucose.
27. Sarwar N, Aspelund T, Eiriksdottir G, et al. Markers of dysglycaemia and risk of coronary heart disease in people without diabetes: Reykjavik prospective study and systematic review. PLoS Med. 2010;7:e1000278.
28. Hyvarinen M, Tuomilehto J, Laatikainen T, et al. The impact of diabetes on coronary heart disease differs from that on ischaemic stroke with regard to the gender. Cardiovasc Diabetology. 2009;8:17.
29. Stranges S, Guallar E. Cardiovascular disease prevention in women: a rapidly evolving scenario. Nutr Metabol Cardiovasc Dis. 2012;22:1013-8.
30. Barrett-Connor EL, Cohn BA, Wingard DL, Edelstein SL. Why is diabetes mellitus a stronger risk factor for fatal ischemic heart disease in women than in men? The Rancho Bernardo study. JAMA. 1991;265:627-31.
31. Penno G, Solini A, Bonora E, et al. Gender differences in cardiovascular disease risk factors, treatments and complications in patients with type 2 diabetes: the RIACE Italian multicentre study. J Intern Med. 2013;274:176-91.
32. Huxley R, Barzi F, Woodward M. Excess risk of fatal coronary heart disease associated with diabetes in men and women: metaanalysis of 37 prospective cohort studies. BMJ. 2006;332:73-8.
33. Lee WL, Cheung AM, Cape D, Zinman B. Impact of diabetes on coronary artery disease in women and men: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. Diabetes Care. 2000;23:962-8. (Pubitemid 30480024)
34. Donahue RP, Dorn JM, Stranges S, Swanson M, Hovey K, Trevisan M. Impaired fasting glucose and recurrent cardiovascular disease among survivors of a first acute myocardial infarction: evidence of a sex difference? The Western New York experience. Nutr Metabol Cardiovasc Dis. 2011;21:504-11.
35. Leosdottir M, Willenheimer R, Persson M, Nilsson P. The association between glucometabolic disturbances, traditional cardiovascular risk factors and self-rated health by age and gender: a crosssectional analysis within the Malmo Preventive Project. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2011;10:118.
36. Levitan EB, Song Y, Ford ES, Liu S. Is nondiabetic hyperglycemia a risk factor for cardiovascular disease? A meta-analysis of prospective studies. Arch Intern Med. 2004;164:2147-55. (Pubitemid 39410805)
37. Park S, Barrett-Connor E, Wingard DL, Shan J, Edelstein S. GHb is a better predictor of cardiovascular disease than fasting or postchallenge plasma glucose in women without diabetes. The Rancho Bernardo study. Diabetes Care. 1996;19:450-6.
38. Kim SH, Reaven G. Sex differences in insulin resistance and cardiovascular disease risk. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;98:E1716-21.
39. Gerstein HC, Islam S, Anand S, et al. Dysglycaemia and the risk of acutemyocardial infarction inmultiple ethnic groups: an analysis of 15,780 patients from the INTERHEART study. Diabetologia. 2010;53:2509-17.
40. Pan XR, Li GW, Hu YH, et al. Effects of diet and exercise in preventing NIDDM in people with impaired glucose tolerance. The Da Qing IGT and Diabetes Study. Diabetes Care. 1997;20:537-44.
41. Chiasson JL, Josse RG, Gomis R, et al. Acarbose for prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus: the STOP-NIDDM randomised trial. Lancet. 2002;359:2072-7. (Pubitemid 34680970)
42. Gerstein HC, Yusuf S, Bosch J, et al. The DREAM (Diabetes REduction Assessment with ramipril and rosiglitazone Medication) Trial Investigators. Effect of rosiglitazone on the frequency of diabetes in patients with impaired glucose tolerance or impaired fasting glucose: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2006;368:1096-105.
43. Li G, Zhang P, Wang J, et al. The long-term effect of lifestyle interventions to prevent diabetes in the China Da Qing Diabetes Prevention Study: a 20-year follow-up study. Lancet. 2008;371:1783-9. (Pubitemid 351697954)
44. Uusitupa M, Peltonen M, Lindström J, et al. Ten-year mortality and cardiovascularmorbidity in the Finnish Diabetes Prevention Study - secondary analysis of the randomized trial. PLoS One. 2009;4:e5656.
45. Goldberg RB, Temprosa M, Haffner S, et al. Effect of progression from impaired glucose tolerance to diabetes on cardiovascular risk factors and its amelioration by lifestyle and metformin intervention: the Diabetes Prevention Program randomized trial by the Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. Diabetes Care. 2009;32:726-32.
46. The Diabetes Prevention Program Outcomes Study Research Group, prepared on behalf of the DPPOS Research Group, Orchard TJ, et al. Long-term effects of the Diabetes Prevention Program interventions on cardiovascular risk factors: a report from the DPP Outcomes Study. Diabet Med. 2013;30:46-55.
47. The NAVIGATOR study group. Effect of valsartan on the incidence of diabetes and cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:1477-90.
48. The NAVIGATOR study group. Effect of nateglinide on the incidence of diabetes and cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:1463-76.
49. The DREAM Trial effects of ramipril and rosiglitazone on cardiovascular and renal outcomes in people with impaired glucose tolerance or impaired fasting glucose: results of the Diabetes REduction Assessment with ramipril and rosiglitazone Medication (DREAM) trial. Diabetes Care. 2008;31:1007-14.
50. The ORIGIN, Investigators T. Basal insulin and cardiovascular and other outcomes in dysglycemia. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:319-28.
51. .•• Chiasson JL, Josse RG, Gomis R, Hanefeld M, Karasik A, Laakso M. Acarbose treatment and the risk of cardiovascular disease and hypertension in patients with impaired glucose tolerance: the STOP-NIDDM trial. JAMA. 2003;290:486-94. This is the only diabetes prevention trial showing beneficial effects on CVD outcomes in individuals with prediabetes. (Pubitemid 37430502)
52. Seifarth C, Bergmann J, Holst JJ, Ritzel R, Schmiegel W, Nauck MA. Prolonged and enhanced secretion of glucagon-like peptide 1(7-36 amide) after oral sucrose due to alpha-glucosidase inhibition (acarbose) in Type 2 diabetic patients. Diabet Med. 1998;15:485-91.
53. DeFronzo RA, Ferrannini E. Insulin resistance. A multifaceted syndrome responsible for NIDDM, obesity, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Diabetes Care. 1998;14:173-94.
54. Færch K, Bergman B, Perreault L. Does insulin resistance drive the association between hyperglycemia and cardiovascular risk? PLoS One. 2012;7:e39260.
55. Haffner SM, Mykkanen L, Festa A, Burke JP, Stern MP. Insulinresistant prediabetic subjects have more atherogenic risk factors than insulin-sensitive prediabetic subjects: implications for preventing coronary heart disease during the prediabetic state. Circulation. 2000;101:975-80. (Pubitemid 30131698)
56. Zhang Y, Lee ET, Howard BV, et al. Insulin resistance, incident cardiovascular diseases, and decreased kidney function among nondiabetic American Indians: the Strong Heart Study. Diabetes Care. 2013; [Epub ahead of print].
57. DeFronzo RA, Tripathy D, Schwenke DC, et al. Pioglitazone for diabetes prevention in impaired glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med. 2011;364:1104-15.
58. Xiang AH, Hodis HN, Kawakubo M, et al. Effect of pioglitazone on progression of subclinical atherosclerosis in non-diabetic premenopausal Hispanic women with prior gestational diabetes. Atherosclerosis. 2008;199:207-14. (Pubitemid 351842700)
59. • Rydén L, Grant PJ, Anker SD, et al. ESC Guidelines on diabetes, pre-diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases developed in collaboration with the EASD: the Task Force on diabetes, pre-diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and developed in collaboration with the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD). Eur Heart J. 2013; doi:10.1093/eurheartj/eht108. These guidelines represent the most up-to-date European recommendations on management of diabetes and prediabetes.
60. Ridker PM, Pradhan A, MacFadyen JG, Libby P, Glynn RJ. Cardiovascular benefits and diabetes risks of statin therapy in primary prevention: an analysis from the JUPITER trial. Lancet. 2011;380:565-71.
61. D'Agostino RB, Vasan RS, Pencina MJ, et al. General cardiovascular risk profile for use in primary care. Circulation. 2008;117:743-53. (Pubitemid 351640675)
62. Conroy RM, Pyorala K, Fitzgerald AP, et al. Estimation of ten-year risk of fatal cardiovascular disease in Europe: the SCORE project. Eur Heart J. 2003;24:987-1003. (Pubitemid 36712275)
63. Anderson KM, Odell PM, Wilson PW, Kannel WB. Cardiovascular disease risk profiles. Am Heart J. 1991;121:293-8.
64. Pencina MJ, D'Agostino Sr RB, Larson MG, Massaro JM, Vasan RS. Predicting the 30-year risk of cardiovascular disease: the Framingham Heart study. Circulation. 2009;119:3078-84.
65. Woodward M, Brindle P, Tunstall-Pedoe H. Adding social deprivation and family history to cardiovascular risk assessment: the ASSIGN score from the Scottish Heart Health Extended Cohort (SHHEC). Heart. 2007;93:172-6. (Pubitemid 46180289)
66. Hippisley-Cox J, Coupland C, Vinogradova Y, et al. Predicting cardiovascular risk in England and Wales: prospective derivation and validation of QRISK2. BMJ. 2008;336:1475-82. (Pubitemid 351977019)
67. Stevens RJ, Kothari V, Adler AI, Stratton IM. The UKPDS risk engine: a model for the risk of coronary heart disease in Type II diabetes (UKPDS 56). Clin Sci (Lond). 2001;101:671-9. (Pubitemid 33135349)
68. Clarke PM, Gray AM, Briggs A, et al. A model to estimate the lifetime health outcomes of patients with type 2 diabetes: the United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Outcomes Model (UKPDS no. 68). Diabetologia. 2004;47:1747-59. (Pubitemid 40022410)
69. Hayes AJ, Leal J, Gray AM, Holman RR, Clarke PM. UKPDS Outcomes Model 2: a new version of a model to simulate lifetime health outcomes of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus using data from the 30 year United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study: UKPDS 82. Diabetologia. 2013;56:1925-33.
70. Davis TM, Stratton IM, Fox CJ, Holman RR, Turner RC. U.K. Prospective Diabetes Study 22. Effect of age at diagnosis on diabetic tissue damage during the first 6 years of NIDDM. Diabetes Care. 1997;20:1435-41. (Pubitemid 27366821)
71. Feher MD, Elkeles RS. Lipid modification and coronary heart disease in type 2 diabetes: different from the general population? Heart. 1999;81:10-1. (Pubitemid 29113196)
72. Grundy SM. Pre-diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular risk. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;59:635-43.
73. Assmann G, Cullen P, Schulte H. Simple scoring scheme for calculating the risk of acute coronary events based on the 10-year follow-up of the prospective cardiovascular Munster (PROCAM) study. Circulation. 2002;105:310-5. (Pubitemid 34106178)
74. Ferrario M, Chiodini P, Chambless LE, et al. Prediction of coronary events in a low incidence population. Assessing accuracy of the CUORE Cohort Study prediction equation. Int J Epidemiol. 2005;34:413-21. (Pubitemid 40645332)
75. Wu Y, Liu X, Li X, et al. Estimation of 10-year risk of fatal and nonfatal ischemic cardiovascular diseases in Chinese adults. Circulation. 2006;114:2217-25. (Pubitemid 44789496)
76. Braun J, Bopp M, Faeh D. Blood glucose may be an alternative to cholesterol in CVD risk prediction charts. Cardiovasc Diabetology. 2013;12. doi:10.1186/1475-2840-12-24.
77. The DECODE Study Group. Prediction of the risk of cardiovascular mortality using a score that includes glucose as a risk factor. The DECODE Study. Diabetologia. 2004;47(12);2118-28.
78. The DECODE Study Group. Is the current definition for diabetes relevant to mortality risk from all causes and cardiovascular and noncardiovascular diseases? Diabetes Care. 2003;26:688-96.
79. Bartnik M, Ryden L, Ferrari R, et al. The prevalence of abnormal glucose regulation in patients with coronary artery disease across Europe. The Euro Heart Survey on diabetes and the heart. Eur Heart J. 2004;25:1880-90. (Pubitemid 39452604)
80. Schöttker B, Müller H, Rothenbacher D, Brenner H. Fasting plasma glucose and HbA1c in cardiovascular risk prediction: a sex-specific comparison in individuals without diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia. 2013;56:92-100.
81. Streiner DL. Breaking up is hard to do: the heartbreak of dichotomizing continuous data. Can J Psychiatry. 2002;47:262-6. (Pubitemid 34614684)