Evolution 'on purpose': How behaviour has shaped the evolutionary process

Biological Journal of the Linnean Society

Volumn 112, Issue 2, 2014, Pages 242-260

  Corning, Peter A ^a  

^a Institute for the Study of Complex Systems   (United States)

Author keywords

Baldwin effect; Cybernetics; Genetic assimilation; Natural genetic engineering; Organic Selection; Phenotypic plasticity; Synergy; Teleonomy

Indexed keywords

COEVOLUTION; EVOLUTIONARY THEORY; GENETIC ENGINEERING; MUTATION; NATURAL SELECTION; PHENOTYPIC PLASTICITY; SYNERGISM; TWENTIETH CENTURY;

EID: 84901218375     PISSN: 00244066     EISSN: 10958312     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/bij.12061     Document Type: Article

References (218)

1. Auletta G. 2010. A paradigm shift in biology? Information 1: 28-59.
2. Avital E, Jablonka E. 2000. Animal traditions: behavioural inheritance in evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3. Baldwin JM. 1895. Mental development in the child and the race: methods and processes. New York, NY: MacMillan.
4. Baldwin JM. 1896a. Heredity and instinct: discussions (revised) following Professor C. Lloyd Morgan before the New York Academy of Sciences, January 31, 1896. Science 3: 438-441, 558-561.
5. Baldwin JM. 1896b. On criticisms of Organic Selection. Science 4: 724-727.
6. Baldwin JM. 1896c. A new factor in evolution. American Naturalist 30: 441-451, 536-553.
7. Baldwin JM. 1902. Development and evolution: including psychological evolution by orthoplasy, and the theory of genetic modes. New York, NY: Macmillan.
8. Bateson G. 1972. Steps to an ecology of mind. New York, NY: Ballantine.
9. Bateson PPG. 1988. The active role of behavior in evolution. In: Ho M-W, Fox SF, eds. Evolutionary processes and metaphors. New York, NY: John Wiley, 191-207.
10. Bateson PPG. 2004. The active role of behaviour in evolution. Biology and Philosophy 19: 283-298.
11. Bateson PPG. 2005. The return of the whole organism. Journal of Bioscience 30: 31-39.
12. Bateson PPG. 2010. The evolution of evolutionary theory. European Review 18: 287-296.
13. Bateson PPG, Gluckman P. 2011. Plasticity, robustness, development, and evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
14. Bateson PPG, Klopfer P, Thompson N, eds. 1993. Perspectives in ethology, Vol. 10. Behaviour and evolution. New York, NY: Plenum Press.
15. Beck BB. 1980. Animal tool behavior. New York, NY: Garland Press.
16. Bekoff M, Jamieson D. 1996. Readings in animal cognition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
17. Boehm C. 1991. Lower-level teleology in biological evolution: decision behavior and reproductive success in two species. Cultural Dynamics 4: 115-134.
18. Boehm C. 2008. Purposive social selection and the evolution of human altruism. Cross-Cultural Research 42: 319-352.
19. Bonner JT. 1959. Cellular slime molds (investigations in the biological sciences). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
20. Boyd R, Richerson PJ. 2005. The origin and evolution of cultures. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
21. Boyd R, Richerson PJ. 2009. Culture and the evolution of human cooperation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B, Biological Sciences 364: 3281-3288.
22. Byrne RW. 1995. The thinking ape: evolutionary origins of intelligence. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
23. Byrne RW, Whiten A, eds. 1988. Machiavellian intelligence: social expertise and the evolution of intellect in monkeys, apes and humans. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
24. Campbell DT. 1974. Downward causation in hierarchically organized biological systems. In: Dobzhansky T, Ayala FJ, eds. Studies in the philosophy of biology. New York, NY: Macmillan, 85-90.
25. Campbell JH. 1994. Organisms create evolution. In: Campbell JH, Schopf JW, eds. Creative evolution?! Boston, MA: Jones & Bartlett, 85-102.
26. Cannon HG. 1955. What Lamarck really said. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London 168: 70-87.
27. Cannon HG. 1959. Lamarck and modern genetics. Manchester: University of Manchester Press.
28. ten Cate C, Rowe C. 2007. Biases in signal evolution: learning makes a difference. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 22: 380-387.
29. Charnov EL. 1976. Optimal foraging, the marginal value theorem. Theoretical Population Biology 9: 129-136.
30. Corballis MC, Lea SEA, eds. 1999. The descent of mind: psychological perspectives on hominid evolution. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
31. Corning PA. 1983. The synergism hypothesis: a theory of progressive evolution. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
32. Corning PA. 2003. Nature's magic: synergy in evolution and the fate of humankind. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
33. Corning PA. 2005. Holistic darwinism: synergy, cybernetics and the bioeconomics of evolution. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
34. Corning PA. 2007a. Synergy goes to war: a bioeconomic theory of collective violence. Journal of Bioeconomics 9: 109-144.
35. Corning PA. 2007b. Control information theory: the 'missing link' in the science of cybernetics. Systems Research and Behavioral Science 24: 297-311.
36. Corning PA. 2012. Rotating the Necker cube: a bioeconomic approach to cooperation and the causal role of synergy in evolution. Journal of Bioeconomics doi: 10.1007/s10818-012-9142-4.
37. Corning PA, Kline SJ. 1998a. Thermodynamics, information and life revisited, part I: to be or entropy. Systems Research and Behavioral Science 15: 273-295.
38. Corning PA, Kline SJ. 1998b. Thermodynamics, information and life revisited, part II: thermoeconomics and control information. Systems Research and Behavioral Science 15: 453-482.
39. Crick F. 1994. The astonishing hypothesis: the scientific search for the soul. New York, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons.
40. Crispo C. 2008. Modifying effects of phenotypic plasticity on interactions among natural selection, adaptation and gene flow. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 21: 1460-1469.
41. Crispo E. 2007. The Baldwin effect and genetic assimilation: revisiting two mechanisms of evolutionary change mediated by phenotypic plasticity. Evolution 61: 2469-2479.
42. Cziko G. 1995. Without miracles: universal selection theory and the second Darwinian revolution. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press (Bradford).
43. Cziko G. 2000. The things we do: using the lessons of Bernard and Darwin to understand the what, how and why of our behavior. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
44. Darwin CR. 1874 [1871]. The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex. New York, NY: A.L. Burt.
45. Darwin CR. 1968 [1859]. On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. Baltimore, MD: Penguin.
46. Dawkins MS. 1983. Battery hens name their price: consumer demand theory and the measurement of ethological needs. Animal Behaviour 31: 1195-1205.
47. Dawkins MS. 1988. Through our eyes only? The search for animal consciousness. Oxford: WH Freeman/Spektrum.
48. Dennett DC. 1983. Intentional systems in cognitive ethology. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 6: 343-390.
49. Diamond JM. 1997. Guns, germs and steel: the fates of human societies. New York, NY: WW Norton.
50. Dobzhansky T, Ayala FJ, Stebbins GL, Valentine JW, eds. 1977. Evolution. San Francisco, CA: Freeman.
51. Dukas R, ed. 1998. Cognitive ethology: the ecology of information processing and decision making. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
52. Dukas R. 2008. Life history of leaning: performance curves of honeybees in the wild. Ethology 114: 1195-1200.
53. Dukas R. 2010. Social leaning in insects. In: Breed M, Moore J, eds. Encyclopedia of animal behavior. New York, NY: Elsevier, 176-179.
54. Ehrlich PR. 2000. Human natures: genes cultures and the human prospect. Washington, DC: Island Press/Shearwater Books.
55. Eldredge N, Gould SJ. 1972. Punctuated equilibria: an alternative to phyletic gradualism. In: Schopf TJM, ed. Models in paleobiology. San Francisco, CA: Freeman, Cooper, 82-115.
56. Emlen JM. 1966. The role of time and energy in food preference. American Naturalist 100: 611-617.
57. Feldman MW, Laland KN. 1996. Gene-culture coevolutionary theory. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 11: 453-457.
58. Foley R. 1995. Humans before humanity: an evolutinary perspective. Oxford: Blackwell.
59. Foley R, Gamble C. 2011. The ecology of social transitions in human evolution. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B, Biological Sciences 364: 3267-3279.
60. Forsell D, ed. 2010. Perceptual control theory: science & applications. Hayward, CA: Living Control Systems Publishing. E-book, version 3.1 January 2011. Available at: http://www.livingcontrolsystems.com/download/pct_readings_ebook.pdf
61. Foster SA. 1999. The geography of behaviour: an evolutionary perspective. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 14: 190-195.
62. Frank SA. 2005. Social selection. In: Fox CW, Wolf JB, eds. Evolutionary genetics: concepts and case studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 350-363.
63. Franks NR. 1989. Army ants: a collective intelligence. American Scientist 77: 139-145.
64. von Frisch K. 1967. The dance language and orientation of bees (Chadwick L. trans.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
65. Gibson R, Ingold T, eds. 1993. Tools, language, and cognition in human evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
66. Gilroy S, Trewavas A. 2001. Signal processing and transduction in plant cells: the end and the beginning. Nature Reviews (Molecular Cell Biology) 2: 307-314.
67. Gissis SB, Jablonka E. 2011. Transformations of Lamarckism: from subtle fluids to molecular biology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
68. Malcolm G. 2000. The tipping point. How little things can make a big difference. New York, NY: Little Brown and Company.
69. Goodall J. 1986. The chimpanzees of Gombe: patterns of behavior. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
70. Gould JL, Gould CG. 1994. The animal mind. New York, NY: Scientific American Library.
71. Gould SJ. 1996. Full house: the spread of excellence from Plato to Darwin. New York, NY: Harmony Books.
72. Grant BR, Grant PR. 1979. Darwin's Finches: population variation and sympatric speciation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 76: 2359-2363.
73. Grant BR, Grant PR. 1989. Natural selection in a population of Darwin's finches. American Naturalist 133: 377-393.
74. Grant BR, Grant PR. 1993. Evolution of Darwin's Finches caused by a rare climatic event. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B, Biological Sciences 251: 111-117.
75. Grant PR, Grant BR. 2002. Adaptive radiation of Darwin's Finches. American Scientist 90: 130-139.
76. Grether GF. 2005. Environmental change, phenotypic plasticity, and genetic compensation. American Naturalist 166: E115-E123.
77. Griffin DR. 1992. Animal minds. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
78. Griffin DR. 2001. Animals know more than we used to think. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 98: 4833-4834.
79. Hardy AC. 1965. The living stream. A restatement of evolution theory and its relation to the spirit of man. London: Collins.
80. Heinrich B. 1995. An experimental investigation of insight in common ravens (Corvus corax). Auk 112: 994-1003.
81. Heinrich B. 1999. Mind of the raven: investigations and adventures with Wolf-Birds. New York, NY: Harper Collins.
82. Hess B, Mikhailov A. 1994. Self-organization in living cells. Science 264: 223-224.
83. Heyes C, Huber L, eds. 2000. The evolution of cognition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
84. Hinde RA. 1966. Animal behaviour: a synthesis of ethology and comparative psychology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
85. Hobhouse LT. 1915. Mind in evolution. New York, NY: MacMillan.
86. Hodgson G, Knudsen T. 2006. The nature and units of social selection. Journal of Evolutionary Economics 16: 477-489.
87. Hoffmeyer J. 1997. Biosemiotics: towards a new synthesis in biology. European Journal for Semiotic Studies 9: 355-376.
88. Hoffmeyer J, Kull K. 2003. Baldwin and semiotics: what intelligence is for. In: Weber B, Depew D, eds. Evolution and learning: the Baldwin effect reconsidered. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 253-272.
89. Hölldobler B, Wilson EO. 1990. The ants. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
90. Hurley C, Montgomery S. 2009. Peppered moths and melanism. Available at: http://www.christs.cam.ac.uk/darwin200/pages/index.php?page_id=g5 (accessed 3 January 2013).
91. Jablonka E, Lamb MJ. 1995. Epigenetic inheritance and evolution: the Lamarckian dimension. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
92. Jablonka E, Lamb MJ, Avital E. 1998. 'Lamarckian' mechanisms in Darwinian evolution. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 13: 206-210.
93. John ER, Chesler P, Bartlett F, Victor I. 1968. Observation learning in cats. Science 159: 1489-1491.
94. Kauffman SA. 1993. The origins of order: self-organization and selection in evolution. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
95. Kauffman SA. 1995. At home in the universe: the search for the laws of self-organization and complexity. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
96. Kauffman SA. 2000. Investigations. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
97. Kawai M. 1965. Newly acquired pre-cultural behavior of a natural troop of japanese monkeys on Kashima island. Primates; Journal of Primatology 6: 1-30.
98. Kettlewell HBD. 1955. Selection experiments on industrial melanism in the Lepidoptera. Heredity 9: 323-342.
99. Kettlewell HBD. 1973. The evolution of melanism: the study of a recurring necessity. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
100. Kingdon J. 1993. Self-made man: human evolution from eden to extinction? . New York, NY: John Wiley.
101. Klein RG. 1999. The human career: human biological and cultural origins, 2nd edn. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
102. Klein RG, Edgar B. 2002. The dawn of human culture. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
103. Koestler A. 1967. The ghost in the machine. New York, NY: Macmillan.
104. Köhler M. 1925. The mentality of apes. London: Routledge Kegan Paul.
105. Krebs JR, Davies NB, eds. 1984. Behavioural ecology: an evolutionary approach, 2nd edn. Oxford: Blackwell.
106. Krebs JR, Davies NB, eds. 1991. Behavioural ecology: an evolutionary approach, 3rd edn. Oxford: Blackwell.
107. Krebs JR, Davies NB. 1993. An introduction to behavioural ecology, 3rd edn. Oxford: Blackwell.
108. Krebs JR, Davies NB, eds. 1997. Behavioural ecology: an evolutionary approach, 4th edn. Oxford: Blackwell.
109. Kull K. 2000. Organisms can be proud to have been their own designers. Cybernetics and Human Knowing 7: 45-55.
110. Lack DL. 1961 [1947]. Darwin's finches. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
111. Laland KN, Odling-Smee J, Feldman MW. 2001. Cultural niche construction and human evolution. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 14: 22-33.
112. Laland KN, Odling-Smee J, Myles S. 2011. How culture shaped the human genome: bringing genetics and the human sciences together. Nature Reviews Genetics 11: 137-148.
113. Lamarck JB de. 1984 [1809]. Zoological philosophy (Elliot H, trans.). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
114. Lewontin RC. 1978. Adaptation. Scientific American 239: 213-230.
115. Lloyd Morgan C. 1891. Animal life and intelligence. Boston, MA: Ginn.
116. Lloyd Morgan C. 1896a. Habit and instinct. London: Arnold.
117. Lloyd Morgan C. 1896b. On modification and variation. Science 4: 733-740.
118. Lloyd Morgan C. 1908 [1900]. Animal behaviour. London: Arnold.
119. Lloyd Morgan C. 1923. Emergent evolution. New York, NY: Henry Holt.
120. Lloyd Morgan C. 1926. Life, mind and spirit. London: Williams and Norgate.
121. Lloyd Morgan C. 1933. The emergence of novelty. New York, NY: Henry Holt.
122. Losos JB. 2001. Evolution: a lizard's tale. Scientific American 284: 64-69.
123. MacArthur RH, Pianka E. 1966. On optimal use of a patchy environment. American Naturalist 100: 603-609.
124. Mackie GO. 1990. The elementary nervous system revisited. American Zoologist 30: 907-920.
125. Margulis L. 1970. Origin of eukaryotic cells. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
126. Margulis L. 1981. Symbiosis in cell evolution. San Francisco, CA: WH Freeman.
127. Margulis L, Fester R, eds. 1991. Symbiosis as a source of evolutionary innovation: speciation and morphogenesis. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
128. Margulis L, Sagan D. 1995. What is life? New York, NY: Simon and Shuster.
129. Mayr E. 1960. The emergence of evolutionary novelties. In: Tax S, ed. Evolution after Darwin, Vol I. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 349-380.
130. Mayr E. 1965. Cause and effect in biology. In: Lerner D, ed. Cause and effect. New York, NY: Free Press, 33-49.
131. Mayr E. 1974. Teleological and teleonomic: a new analysis. In: Cohen RS, Wartofsky MW, eds. Boston studies in the philosophy of science, Vol. 14. Boston, MA: Reidel, 91-117.
132. Mayr E. 1976. Evolution and the diversity of life: selected essays. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
133. McGrew WC. 1992. Chimpanzee material culture: implications for human evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
134. Moczek AP, Sultan S, Foster S, Ledón-Rettig C, Dworkin I, Nijhout HF, Abouheif E, Pfennig DW. 2011. The role of developmental plasticity in evolutionary innovation. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B, Biological Sciences 278: 2705-2713.
135. Monod J. 1971. Chance and necessity (Wainhouse A. trans.). New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf.
136. Noë R, Van Hooff JARAM, Hammerstein P, eds. 2001. Economics in nature: social dilemmas, mate choice and biological markets. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
137. Odling-Smee FJ, Laland KN, Feldman MW. 2003. Niche construction: the neglected process in evolution. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
138. Okasha S. 2006. Evolution and the levels of selection. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
139. Osborn HF. 1896a. Discussion following presentation of paper by A. Graf, 'The Problem of the Transmission of Acquired Characters'. Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences 15: 141-143.
140. Osborn HF. 1896b. Ontogenetic and phylogenetic variation. Science 4: 786-789.
141. Osborn HF. 1897. The limits of Organic Selection. American Naturalist 31: 944-951.
142. Packard A. 2006. Contribution to the whole (H). Can squids show us anything that we did not know already? Biology and Philosophy 21: 189-211.
143. Palameta B, Lefebvre LK. 1985. The social transmission of a food-finding technique in pigeons: what is learned? Animal Behaviour 33: 892-896.
144. Pigliucci M. 2001. Phenotypic plasticity: beyond nature and nurture. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
145. Pigliucci M, Murran CJ, Schlichting CD. 2006. Phenotypic plasticity and evolution by genetic assimilation. Journal of Experimental Biology 209: 2362-2367.
146. Pittendrigh CS. 1958. Adaptation, natural selection and behavior. In: Roe A, Simpson GG, eds. Behavior and evolution. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 390-416.
147. Plotkin HC, ed. 1988. The role of behavior in evolution. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
148. Powers WT. 1973. Behavior: the control of perception. Chicago, IL: Aldine.
149. Powers WT. 1989. Living control systems [selected papers 1960-1988]. New Canaan, CT: Benchmark Publications.
150. Powers WT. 1992. Living control systems II [selected papers 1959-1990]. New Canaan, CT: Benchmark Publications.
151. Powers WT. 1995. The origins of purpose: the first metasystem transitions. World Futures 45: 125-138.
152. Powers WT. 1998. Making sense of behavior: the meaning of control. New Canaan, CT: Benchmark Publications.
153. Powers WT. 2008. Living control systems III: the fact of control [mathematical appendix by Kennaway R]. New Canaan, CT: Benchmark Publications.
154. Powers WT. 2010 [1989]. Thing's I'd like to say if they wouldn't think I'm a nut. In: Forsell D, ed. Perceptual control theory: science and applications. Hayward, CA: Living Control Systems Publishing, 5. E-book, version 3.1 January 2011. Available at: http://www.livingcontrolsystems.com/download/pct_readings_ebook.pdf
155. Powers WT. 2010 [1994]. The underpinnings of PCT; Systems Theory and PCT. In: Forsell D, ed. Perceptual control theory: science and applications. Hayward, CA: Living Control Systems Publishing, 52-54. E-book, version 3.1 January 2011. Available at: http://www.livingcontrolsystems.com/download/pct_readings_ebook.pdf
156. Richerson PJ, Boyd R. 2005. Not by genes alone: how culture transformed human evolution. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
157. Richerson PJ, Boyd R. 2010. Why possibly language evolved. Biolinguistics 4: 289-306.
158. Richerson PJ, Boyd R, Henrich J. 2010. Gene culture coevolution in the age of genomics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 107 (Suppl. 2): 8985-8992.
159. Robinson BW. 2000. Tradeoffs in habitat-specific foraging efficiency and the nascent adaptive divergence of sticklebacks in lakes. Behaviour 137: 865-888.
160. Robinson BW, Dukas R. 1999. The influence of phenotypic modifications on evolution: the Baldwin effect and modern perspectives. Oikos 85: 582-589.
161. Robinson BW, Januszkiewicz AJ, Koblitz JC. 2008. Survival benefits and divergence of predator-induced behavior between pumpkinseed sunfish ecomorphs. Behavioral Ecology 19: 263-271.
162. Roe A, Simpson GG, eds. 1958. Behavior and evolution. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
163. Rogers LJ. 1998. Minds of their own: thinking and awareness in animals. St Leonards, NSW: Allen and Unwin.
164. Romanes GJ. 1883. Animal intelligence. New York, NY: Appleton.
165. Schoener TW. 1971. Theory of feeding strategies. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 2: 369-404.
166. Seeley TD. 1989. The honey bee colony as a super-organism. American Scientist 77: 546-553.
167. Seeley TD. 1995. The wisdom of the hive: the social physiology of honey bee colonies. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
168. Shapiro JA. 1988. Bacteria as multicellular organisms. Scientific American 258: 82-89.
169. Shapiro JA. 1991. Genomes as smart systems. Genetica 84: 3-4.
170. Shapiro JA. 1992. Natural genetic engineering in evolution. Genetica 86: 99-111.
171. Shapiro JA. 2012. Evolution: a view from the 21st century. Upper Saddle River, NJ: FT Press Science.
172. Simon H. 1990. A mechanism for social selection and successful altruism. Science 250: 1665-1668.
173. Simpson GG. 1953. The Baldwin effect. Evolution 2: 110-117.
174. Skinner BF. 1981. Selection by consequences. Science 213: 501-504.
175. Spalding DA. 1873. Instinct: with original observations on young animals. Macmillan's Magazine 27: 282-293.
176. Spencer H. 1892 [1852]. The development hypothesis. In: Spencer H, ed. Essays: scientific, political and speculative. New York, NY: Appleton.
177. Sperry RW. 1969. A modified concept of consciousness. Psychological Review 76: 532-536.
178. Sperry RW. 1991. In defense of mentalism and emergent interaction. Journal of Mind and Behavior 12: 221-246.
179. Stamps JA. 1991. Why evolutionary issues are reviving interest in proximate behavioral mechanisms. American Zoologist 31: 338-348.
180. Stamps JA, Groothuis TGG. 2010. The development of animal personality: relevance, concepts, and perspectives. Biological Reviews 85: 301-325.
181. Stamps JA, Krishnan VV, Willits NH. 2009. How different types of natal experience affect habitat preference. American Naturalist 174: 623-630.
182. Stark W. 1961. Natural and social selection. In: Banton M, ed. Darwinism and the study of society: a centenary symposium. London: Tavistock, 49-61.
183. Stiassny MLJ, Meyer A. 1999. Cichlids of the rift lakes. Scientific American 280: 64-69.
184. Tanaka Y. 1996. Social selection and the evolution of animal signals. Evolution 50: 512-523.
185. Thaler DS. 1994. The evolution of genetic intelligence. Science 264: 224-225.
186. Thorndike EL. 1965 [1911]. Animal intelligence: experimental studies. New York, NY: Hafner.
187. Thorpe WH. 1956. Learning and instinct in animals. London: Methuen.
188. Thorpe WH. 1978. Purpose in a world of chance: a biologist's view. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
189. Tinbergen N. 1965. Social behaviour in animals. London: Methuen.
190. Traulsen A, Nowak MA. 2006. Evolution of cooperation by multilevel selection. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103: 10952-10955.
191. Verzijden MN, ten Cate C. 2007. Early learning influences species assortative mating preferences in lake victoria cichlid fish. Biology Letters 3: 134-136.
192. Waddington CH. 1942. Canalization of development and the inheritance of acquired characters. Nature 150: 563-565.
193. Waddington CH. 1952. Selection of the genetic basis for an acquired character. Nature 169: 278.
194. Waddington CH. 1957. The strategy of the genes: a discussion of some aspects of theoretical biology. New York, NY: Macmillan.
195. Waddington CH. 1961. The nature of life. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
196. Waddington CH. 1975. The evolution of an evolutionist. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
197. Warren HC. 2010. Olympic: the story behind the scenery. Wickenburg, AZ: KC Publications.
198. Wcislo WT. 1989. Behavioral environments and evolutionary change. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 20: 137-169.
199. Weber B, Depew D, eds. 2003. Evolution and learning: the Baldwin effect reconsidered. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
200. Weigl PD, Hanson EV. 1980. Observational learning and the feeding behavior of the red squirrel Tamiasciurus hudsonicus: the ontogeny of optimization. Ecology 61: 213-218.
201. Weiner J. 1994. The beak of the finch. New York, NY: Vintage Books.
202. Weiner N. 1948. Cybernetics: or control and communications in the animal and the machine. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
203. Weismann A. 1904. The evolution theory (Thomson JA, Thomson MR. trans.). London: Arnold.
204. West-Eberhard MJ. 1989. Phenotypic plasticity and the origins of diversity. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 20: 249-278.
205. West-Eberhard MJ. 2003. Developmental plasticity and evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
206. West-Eberhard MJ. 2005. Phenotypic accommodation: adaptive innovation due to phenotypic pasticity. Journal of Experimental Zoology 304B: 610-618.
207. Whiten A, Byrne RW. 1997. Machiavellian intelligence II: extensions and evaluations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
208. Whyte LL. 1965. Internal factors in evolution. New York, NY: Braziller.
209. Wills C. 1993. The runaway brain: the evolution of human uniqueness. New York, NY: Basic Books.
210. Wilson DS. 1997. Introduction: multilevel selection theory comes of age. American Naturalist 150 (Suppl.): S1-S4.
211. Wilson EO. 1975. Sociobiology: the new synthesis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
212. Wolf JB, Brodie ED III, Moore AJ. 1999. Interacting phenotypes and the evolutionary process, II: selection resulting from social interactions. American Naturalist 153: 254-266.
213. Wolpoff MH. 1999. Paleoanthropology, 2nd edn. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
214. Wrangham RW. 1999. The raw and the stolen: cooking and the ecology of human origins. Current Anthropology 40: 567-594.
215. Wrangham RW. 2001. Out of the Pan, into the fire: how our ancestors' evolution depended on what they ate. In: de Waal FBM, ed. Tree of origin: what primate behavior can tell us about human social evolution. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 121-143.
216. Wrangham RW, McGrew WC, de Waal FBM, Heltne PG, eds. 1994. Chimpanzee cultures. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
217. Wynne CDL. 2001. Animal cognition: the mental lives of animals. London: Macmillan.
218. Yoerg SI. 2001. Clever as a fox: animal intelligence and what it can teach us about ourselves. New York, NY: Bloomsbury.