Bodies of reform: The rhetoric of character in gilded age America

Bodies of Reform: The Rhetoric of Character in Gilded Age America

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages 1-300

  Salazar, James B ^a  

^a TEMPLE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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References (276)

1. Virginia Woolf, "Mr. Bennett and Mrs. Brown," in The Captain's Deathbed and Other Essays (New York: Harcourt, 1950), 94-119, reprinted in Theory of the Novel, ed. Michael McKeon (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000), 745-746.
2. W.E.B. Du Bois, The Autobiography of W.E.B. Du Bois: A Soliloquy on Viewing My Life from the Last Decade of Its First Century (New York: International Publishers, 1968), 277.
3. Orison Swett Marden, Character: The Grandest Thing in the World (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1899).
4. Guy Debord, Society of the Spectacle, trans. Ken Knabb (London: Rebel, 2006).
5. Noah Webster, American Dictionary of the English Language (New York: S. Converse, 1828), s.v. "Character." 13. J. Hillis Miller, Ariadne's Thread: Story Lines (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992), 32, 58.
6. John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, vol. 1 (London: Oxford University Press, 1894), 121.
7. William Dean Howells, A Modern Instance (New York: Penguin, 1984), 288.
8. Brook Thomas, American Literary Realism and the Failed Promise of Contract (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 243.
9. Rupert Wilkinson, The Pursuit of American Character (New York: Harper and Row, 1988). Or as Günter Lenz has put it, "American Studies, with its obsessional concern for the character of America, was the original 'identity politics.'" Günter H. Lenz, "Toward a Dialogics of International American Studies," in The Futures of American Studies, ed. Donald E. Pease and Robyn Wiegman (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002), 465.
10. Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (New York: Hill and Wang, 1982), 92.
11. Edwin Whipple, Character and Characteristic Men (Boston: Ticknor and Fields, 1866), 4.
12. Amanda Anderson, The Way We Argue Now: A Study in the Cultures of Theory (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006), 131.
13. Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture (New York: Routledge, 2004), 142.
14. Lydia Maria Child, The Mother's Book (1831; repr., Bedford, MA: Applewood Books, 1992), frontispiece, 1. Fanny Fern, Ruth Hall: A Domestic Tale of the Present Time (1855; repr., New York: Penguin, 1997), 25.
15. Slavoj Žižek, The Parallax View (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006), 60.
16. Joel Hawes, Lectures to Young Men on the Formation of Character (Boston: Congregational Board of Publication, 1856), 102.
17. Frederick Douglass, "What Are the Colored People Doing for Themselves?" in Negro Social and Political Thought, ed. Howard Brotz (New York: Basic Books, 1966), 207.
18. Nancy Ruttenburg, Democratic Personality: Popular Voice and the Trial of American Authorship (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998), 37-43.
19. Walter Benjamin, "Fate and Character," in Reflections, ed. Peter Demetz, trans. Edmund Jephcott (New York: Schocken Books, 1986), 304.
20. John Stuart Mill, On Liberty (1859; repr., Indianapolis: Hackett, 1978), 57.
21. Noah Webster, American Dictionary of the English Language (New York: S. Converse, 1828), s.v. "Character." 57. Warner, Letters of the Republic, xiii.
22. See Jun Xing, Asian America through the Lens: History, Representations, and Identity (Lanham, MD: AltaMira, 1998); Henry Louis Gates, The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African-American Literary Criticism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); and Halttunen, Confidence Men and Painted Women.
23. Noah Webster, American Dictionary of the English Language (New York: S. Converse, 1828), s.v. "Reputation"; E.L. Godkin, "The Rights of the Citizen to His Own Reputation," Scribner's Magazine 8, no. 1 (July 1890): 58-67.
24. See Jane Gaines, Contested Culture: The Image, the Voice, and the Law (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), 211-213.
25. See Samuel D. Warren and Louis D. Brandeis, "The Right to Privacy," Harvard Law Review 4, no. 5 (December 1890);
26. Robert C. Post, "Rereading Warren and Brandeis: Privacy, Property, and Appropriation," Case Western Reserve Law Review 41 (1991): 647.
27. Clyde Peirce, The Roosevelt Panama Libel Cases (New York: Greenwich, 1959), 87.
28. See also Norman Rosenberg, Protecting the Best Men: An Interpretive History of the Law of Libel (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986), 4.
29. Cheryl Harris, "Whiteness as Property," in Critical Race Theory: The Key Writings That Formed the Movement, ed. Kimberlé Crenshaw, Neil Gotanda, Gary Peller, and Kendall Thomas (New York: New Press, 1995), 282.
30. Bruce Burgett, Sentimental Bodies: Sex, Gender, and Citizenship in the Early Republic (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 13.
31. Karen Sánchez-Eppler, Touching Liberty: Abolition, Feminism, and the Politics of the Body (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 1, cited in Burgett, Sentimental Bodies, 15.
32. Helen H. Jun, "Black Orientalism: Nineteenth-Century Narratives of Race and U.S. Citizenship," American Quarterly 58, no. 4 (December 2006): 1050.
33. Richard Brodhead, Cultures of Letters: Scenes of Reading and Writing in Nineteenth-Century America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 17-27.
34. Margaret Fuller, Woman in the Nineteenth Century (1845; repr., New York: Norton, 1998), 45.
35. Michael Paul Rogin, Subversive Genealogy: The Politics and Art of Herman Melville (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 239.
36. Newell Dwight Hillis, A Man's Value to Society: Studies in Self-Culture and Character (Chicago: Fleming H. Revell, 1896), 283.
37. Louis Althusser, "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses," in Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1971), 168.
38. John Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1693; repr., Indianapolis: Hackett, 1996), 36-39. See also G. Brown, Consent of the Governed, 30-35.
39. See Shawn Michelle Smith, American Archives: Gender, Race, and Class in Visual Culture (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), 113-135;
40. Karen Sánchez-Eppler, "Then When We Clutch Hardest: On the Death of a Child and the Replication of an Image," in Sentimental Men: Masculinity and the Politics of Affect in American Culture, ed. Mary Chapman and Glenn Hendler (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 64-88.
41. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (New York: Vintage Books, 1995);
42. Jonathan Crary, Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in 19th Century America (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992);
43. Allan Sekula, "The Body and the Archive," October 39 (Winter 1986): 3-64. See also Smith, American Archives.
44. Jane Tompkins, Sensational Designs: The Cultural Work of American Fiction, 1790-1860 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), xvii. See also Cathy Davidson, Revolution and the Word: The Rise of the Novel in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 55-82.
45. Glenn Hendler, Public Sentiments: Structures of Feeling in Nineteenth-Century American Literature (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 1.
46. Ian Watt, The Rise of the Novel (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1957).
47. See Deidre Shauna Lynch, The Economy of Character: Novels, Market Culture, and the Business of Inner Meaning (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 4.
48. See also Kristie Hamilton, America's Sketchbook: The Cultural Life of a Nineteenth-Century Literary Genre (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1998);
49. Smeed, The Theophrastan "Character"; and David A. Brewer, The Afterlife of Character, 1726-1825 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005).
50. See, for example, F.O. Matthiessen, American Renaissance: Art and Expression in the Age of Emerson and Whitman (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), 351-368.
51. See, for example, Nancy Glazener, Reading for Realism: The History of a U.S. Literary Institution, 1850-1910 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1997);
52. Michael A. Elliot, The Culture Concept: Writing and Difference in the Age of Realism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002), 40;Brook Thomas, American Literary Realism, 10; and Kaplan, Social Construction, 13. For a defense of the complex narrative and cultural function performed by the sentimental type, see Tompkins, Sensational Designs, xvi-xvii, 134-136, 175.
53. William Dean Howells, Criticism and Fiction (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1893), 115.
54. Henry James, Portrait of a Lady (New York: Viking, 1996), 255. Howells, Criticism and Fiction, 15-16. Although realism's concern with "detail" is often associated with the documentary mechanics of photography, James, like Howells, made clear that "the virtues of detail" might indeed be "the virtues of the photograph," but "the photograph lacks the supreme virtue of possessing a character." Henry James, "Miss Mackenzie," in Notes and Reviews (Cambridge, MA: University Press, 1921), 74.
55. Edward Bellamy, "To Whom This May Come," in "The Blindman's World" and Other Stories (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1898), 7, quoted in Stacey Margolis, The Public Life of Privacy in Nineteenth-Century American Literature (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005), 2.
56. S. Weir Mitchell, Characteristics (New York: Century, 1902), 10.
57. David Hume, A Treatise on Human Nature (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1965), 159-160.
58. J. Hillis Miller, Ariadne's Thread: Story Lines (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992), 58.
59. Karen Halttunen, Confidence Men and Painted Women: A Study of Middle-Class Culture in America, 1830-1870 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982);
60. Susan Kuhlmann, Knave, Fool, and Genius: The Confidence Man as He Appears in Nineteenth-Century American Fiction (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1973);
61. Gary Lindberg, The Confidence-Man in American Literature (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982);
62. Warwick Wadlington, The Confidence Game in American Literature (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975).
63. Herman Melville, The Confidence-Man: His Masquerade, ed. Harrison Hayford, Hershel Parker, and G. Thomas Tanselle (1857; repr., Evanston and Chicago: Northwestern University Press and The Newberry Library, 1984), 8. Further references to the novel are to this edition and are cited parenthetically in the text.
64. Michael Paul Rogin, Subversive Genealogy: The Politics and Art of Herman Melville (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 239.
65. See Kristie Hamilton, America's Sketchbook: The Cultural Life of a Nineteenth-Century Literary Genre (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1998).
66. David Kazanjian, The Colonizing Trick: National Culture and Imperial Citizenship in Early America (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2003), 4.
67. See Elizabeth Renker, "'A--!': Unreadability in The Confidence-Man," in The Cambridge Companion to Herman Melville, ed. Robert S. Levine (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 129.
68. For a succinct yet comprehensive overview of approaches to the Indian-hater story, see John Bryant, "The Confidence-Man; Melville's Problem Novel," in A Companion to Melville Studies, ed. John Bryant (New York: Greenwood, 1986), 315-350.
69. For a critique of the depoliticizing effects of such approaches, see Stephen Matterson, "Indian-Hater, Wild Man: Melville's Confidence-Man," Arizona Quarterly 52, no. 2 (Summer 1996): 22.
70. William M. Ramsey, "The Moot Points of Melville's Indian-Hating," American Literature 52, no. 2 (May 1980): 224-235.
71. See Watson G. Branch, "The Mute as 'Metaphysical Scamp,'" in Herman Melville, The Confidence-Man: His Masquerade, ed. Hershel Parker (New York: Norton, 1971), 316-319.
72. On the confidence man's cosmopolitanism, see Sheila Post-Lauria, Correspondent Colorings: Melville in the Marketplace (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1996), 223; Quirk, Melville's Confidence Man, 16-17; and John Bryant, Melville and Repose: The Rhetoric of Humor in the American Renaissance (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 109-128, 244-264.
73. Michael Banton, "The Idiom of Race," in Theories of Race and Racism, ed. Les Back and John Solomos (New York: Routledge, 2000), 52-58.
74. Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (New York: Hill and Wang, 1982), 3-7. On the "federalization of affect," see Christopher Castiglia, Interior States: Institutional Consciousness and the Inner Life of Democracy in the Antebellum United States (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008), 18.
75. See also Bryant, "The Confidence-Man," 316.
76. Ralph Waldo Emerson, "Self-Reliance," in Ralph Waldo Emerson: Essays and Lectures (New York: Library of America, 1983), 265.
77. Toni Morrison, The Bluest Eye (New York: Vintage, 1970), 164.
78. Helen Hunt Jackson, Ramona (1884; repr., New York: Signet, 2002), 346.
79. Frederick Jackson Turner, "The Significance of the Frontier in American History," in Frederick Jackson Turner: Wisconsin's Historian of the Frontier, ed. Martin Ridge (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1993), 26-47;
80. William Graham Sumner, "Sociology," in Collected Essays in Political and Social Science (New York: Holt, 1885), 95-96.
81. Wai-chee Dimock, Empire for Liberty (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989).
82. Homi Bhabha, "Introduction: Narrating the Nation," in Nation and Narration, ed. Homi Bhabha (New York: Routledge, 1994), 1.
83. Warren I. Susman, Culture as History: The Transformation of American Society in the Twentieth Century (New York: Pantheon, 1984), 271-286. Early examples of such a perspective include Richard Chase, "Melville's Confidence Man," Kenyon Review 11 (Winter 1949): 136; and Neil Harris, Humbug: The Art of P.T. Barnum (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973), 221-223. See also David Sewell, "Mercantile Philosophy and the Dialectics of Confidence: Another Perspective on The Confidence-Man," ESQ 30 (2nd Quarter 1984): 99-110.
84. Ralph Waldo Emerson, "Character," in Ralph Waldo Emerson: Essays and Lectures (New York: Library of America, 1983), 498, 495.
85. Rufus W. Clark, Lectures on the Formation of Character: Temptations and Mission of Young Men (Boston: John P. Jewett, 1853), 213, 326, 350.
86. P.T. Barnum, Dollars and Sense; or, How to Get On: The Whole Secret in a Nutshell (New York: Henry S. Allen, 1890), 17.
87. Booker T. Washington, Character Building (1903; repr., Amsterdam: Fredonia Books, 2002), 3.
88. Edwin Whipple, Character and Characteristic Men (Boston: Ticknor and Fields, 1866), 159.
89. Frances Willard, What Frances E. Willard Said, ed. Anna A. Gordon (New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1905), 105.
90. Thornstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899; repr., New York: Dover, 1994), 136.
91. John Quincy Adams and Charles Francis Adams, The Life of John Adams, vol. 2 (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1871), 376. In all fairness, it should be noted that the Adams family was not very well disposed toward the memory of Jefferson, given his role in the libelous attack on John Adams as a "hermaphroditical character" during Adams's presidency.
92. Gordon Wood, Revolutionary Characters: What Made the Founders Different (New York: Penguin, 2006), 36.
93. F.O. Matthiessen, American Renaissance: Art and Expression in the Age of Emerson and Whitman (New York: Oxford University Press, 1941), 105.
94. Sheila Post-Lauria, Correspondent Colorings: Melville in the Marketplace (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1996), 223.
95. Karen Halttunen, Confidence Men and Painted Women: A Study of Middle-Class Culture in America, 1830-1870 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982), 31.
96. William Dean Howells, My Mark Twain: Reminiscences and Criticisms (1910; repr., Kingsport: Louisiana State University Press, 1967).
97. John Carlos Rowe, "How the Boss Played the Game: Twain's Critique of Imperialism in A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court," in The Cambridge Companion to Mark Twain, ed. Forrest G. Robinson (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 175-192.
98. Mark Twain, A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (1889; repr., Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), 67. Further references to the novel are to this edition and are cited parenthetically in the text.
99. Michael Davitt Bell, The Problem of American Realism: Studies in the Cultural History of a Literary Idea (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 58.
100. James L. Johnson, Mark Twain and the Limits of Power (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1982). As Joe Fulton notes, critics who focus on the novel's shifting perspective on the modern technology of Twain's day invariably see a kind of autobiographical statement of Twain's own frustrations with technology in the aftermath of his failed investment in the impossibly complex mechanism of the Paige Compositor, which not only brought Twain and his publishing house to bankruptcy but also inaugurated, in many critics' view, the pessimistic perspective of Twain's later writings. Joe B. Fulton, Mark Twain's Ethical Realism: The Aesthetics of Race, Class, and Gender (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1997).
101. Bill Brown, The Material Unconscious: American Amusement, Stephen Crane, and the Economies of Play (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996), 173.
102. Kenneth Kidd, Making American Boys: Boyology and the Feral Tale (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005), 50.
103. T.J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture, 1880-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 146;
104. see also Caroline F. Levander, Cradle of Liberty: Race, the Child, and National Belonging from Thomas Jefferson to W.E.B. Du Bois (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006), 9.
105. Roberta Trites, Twain, Alcott, and the Birth of the Adolescent Reform Novel (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2007), 76.
106. Mark Twain, The American Claimant (1892; repr., New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 217.
107. Richard S. Lowry, "Littery Man": Mark Twain and Modern Authorship (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 95-98.
108. Mark Twain, Mark Twain's Book for Bad Boys and Girls, ed. R. Kent Rasmussen (Chicago: Contemporary Books, 1995);
109. Mark Twain, Mark Twain's Helpful Hints for Good Living: A Handbook for the Damned Human Race, ed. Lin Salamo, Victor Fischer, and Michael B. Frank (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004).
110. Mark Twain, Mark Twain's Notebooks and Journals, vol. 1, ed. Frederick Anderson (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975), 398.
111. See Cathy Boeckmann, A Question of Character: Scientific Racism and the Genres of American Fiction, 1892-1912 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2000), 101-107.
112. Thomas Bailey Aldrich, The Story of a Bad Boy (1869; repr., Hanover: University of New Hampshire Press, 1990); Charles Dudley Warner, Being a Boy (1877; repr., Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1897); William Dean Howells, A Boy's Town (1890), in Selected Writings of William Dean Howells, ed. Henry Steele Commager (New York: Random House, 1950).
113. David I. Macleod, Building Character in the American Boy: The Boy Scouts, YMCA, and Their Forerunners, 1870-1920 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983), 55.
114. Gail Bederman, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880-1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995).
115. Frank Norris, "Child Stories for Adults," in The Responsibilities of the Novelist and Other Literary Essays (New York: Doubleday, Page, 1903), 114.
116. For an excellent account of the impact of fetishism on the development of nineteenthcentury cultural theory, see Peter Logan, Victorian Fetishism: Intellectuals and Primitives (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2009).
117. Martha Banta, "The Boys and the Bosses: Twain's Double Take on Work, Play, and the Democratic Ideal," American Literary History 3. no. 3 (Fall 1991): 497, 489.
118. William Byron Forbush, The Boy Problem: A Study in Social Pedagogy (Boston: Pilgrim, 1901). Girls were also identified as a "problem" by authors such as Mary Moxcey, who notes in Girlhood and Character, "The fact that you have opened this book shows that you have something to do with girls. And if you have, you doubtless have some 'girl problem.'" Mary E. Moxcey, Girlhood and Character (New York: Abingdon, 1916), 17. See also Phyllis Blanchard, The Adolescent Girl: A Study from the Psychoanalytic Viewpoint (New York: Moffat, Yard, 1920).
119. Edwin Puller, "The Eternal Boy Problem," in Your Boy and His Training: A Practical Treatise on Boy Training (New York: D. Appleton, 1916), 1.
120. Ernest Thompson Seton, Boy Scouts of America: A Handbook of Woodcraft, Scouting, and Life-Craft (New York: Doubleday, Page, 1910), xi-xii, reprinted in The Call of the Wild: 1900-1916, ed. Roderick Nash (New York: George Braziller, 1970), 19-20.
121. Ralph Waldo Emerson, "Self-Reliance," in Ralph Waldo Emerson: Essays and Lectures (New York: Library of America, 1983), 261.
122. Joseph Kett, Rites of Passage: Adolescence in America 1790 to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1978), 133-134; Lears, No Place of Grace, 141-182.
123. Perry Edwards Powell, The Knights of the Holy Grail: A Solution of the Boy Problem (Cincinnati: Press of Jennings & Graham, 1906);
124. William Byron Forbush, The Boys' Round Table: A Manual of Boys' Clubs Explaining the Order of the Knights of King Arthur (Albany, NY: Brandow, 1907); Boy Scouts of America, Boy Scouts Handbook (1911; repr., Mineola, NY: Dover, 2005), 237-254.
125. Amy Kaplan and Donald E. Pease, eds., Cultures of United States Imperialism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1994).
126. See John Carlos Rowe, "How the Boss Played the Game: Twain's Critique of Imperialism in A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court," in The Cambridge Companion to Mark Twain, ed. Forrest G. Robinson (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 186.
127. See Cindy Weinstein, The Literature of Labor and the Labor of Literature: Allegory in Nineteenth-Century American Fiction (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 129-169.
128. Edward Sisson, The Essentials of Character: A Practical Study of the Aim of Moral Education (New York: Macmillan, 1915), 184.
129. See also Newell Dwight Hillis, The Contagion of Character: Studies in Culture and Success (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1911).
130. Robert Baden-Powell, Headquarter's Gazette 5 (November 1911), 2, quoted in Rosenthal, Character Factory, 6, and in Seltzer, Bodies and Machines, 153.
131. Marian M. George, Character Building (Chicago: A. Flanagan, 1909), 2, 10, 91.
132. George Propheter, "The Habits of Habits," Health 55, no. 11 (November 1905): 369.
133. See also Henry Park Schauffler, Adventures in Habit-Craft: Character in the Making (New York: Macmillan, 1927).
134. Charles Chauncy, Seasonable Thoughts on the State of Religion in New-England (Boston, 1742), 6.
135. John Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1693; repr. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1996), 41. For an analysis of the tension between this definition of character and Locke's empiricist definition of the mind as a blank slate or "white page,"
136. see Ala A. Alryyes, Original Subjects: The Child, the Novel, and the Nation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 38.
137. Rufus W. Clark, Lectures on the Formation of Character: Temptations and Mission of Young Men (Boston: John P. Jewett, 1853), 28 (emphasis added).
138. John Todd, The Student's Manual: Designed, by Specific Directions, to Aid in Forming and Strengthening the Intellectual and Moral Character and Habits of the Student (Northampton, MA: J.H. Butler, 1835), 47.
139. Judy Hilkey, Character Is Capital: Success Manuals and Manhood in Gilded Age America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997).
140. See Alan Gribben, Mark Twain's Library: A Reconstruction, vol. 2 (Boston: G.K. Hall, 1980).
141. Mark Twain, A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (New York: Charles L. Webster, 1889).
142. William Mathews, Getting On in the World; or, Hints on Success in Life (Chicago: S.C. Griggs, 1877), 164.
143. Samuel Smiles, Character (New York: A.L. Burt, 1872), 166.
144. Walter Benjamin, "Fate and Character," in Reflections, ed. Peter Demetz (New York: Schocken Books, 1986), 306.
145. Helen Keller, The Open Door (New York: Doubleday, 1957), 30.
146. William James, The Principles of Psychology, vol. 1 (1890; repr., New York: Dover, 1950).
147. Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, The Federalist Papers (New York: New American Library, 1999), 351; Friedrich Nietzsche, On the Genealogy of Morals, trans. Walter Kaufman (New York: Vintage Books, 1989), 57-65.
148. Allison Winter, Mesmerism: Powers of Mind in Victorian Britain (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 308.
149. Thomas Winter, Making Men, Making Class: The YMCA and Workingmen, 1877-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), 12-13.
150. Washington Irving, "Philip of Pokanoket," in The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. (1819-20; repr., New York: E.P. Dutton, 1922), 283. See also Irving's "Traits of Indian Character," in The Sketch Book, James Fenimore Cooper's Last of the Mohicans, Lydia Maria Child's Hobomok, and Catherine Sedgwick's Hope Leslie.
151. Ernest Thompson Seton and Julia Seton, The Gospel of the Redman: A Way of Life (Santa Fe, NM: Seton Village, 1966);
152. Ernest Thompson Seton, Two Little Savages: Being the Adventures of Two Boys Who Live as Indians and What They Learned (1903; repr., New York: Dover, 1962).
153. Charles A. Eastman, "Training for Service," in Indian Scout Craft and Lore (1914; repr., New York: Dover, 1974), 190; Charles Alexander Eastman, "An Indian Boy's Training," in Indian Boyhood (1902; repr., Boston: Little, Brown, 1922), 52. See also Luther Standing Bear, Land of the Spotted Eagle (1933; repr., Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1978).
154. Cindy Weinstein, The Literature of Labor and the Labors of Literature: Allegory in Nineteenth-Century American Fiction (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 129-73.
155. Daniel Carter Beard, Hardly a Man Is Now Alive (New York: Doubleday, Doran, 1939), 338.
156. Henry Nash Smith, Mark Twain's Fable of Progress: Political and Economic Ideas in "A Connecticut Yankee" (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1964), 76.
157. See Bernard L. Stein, "Explanatory Notes," in Mark Twain, A Connecticut Yankee In King Arthur's Court (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), 458;
158. Beverly R. David, "The Unexpurgated A Connecticut Yankee: Mark Twain and His Illustrator, Daniel Carter Beard," Prospects 1 (1975): 101.
159. Newell Hillis, A Man's Value to Society: Studies in Self-Culture and Character (Chicago: Fleming H. Revell, 1897), 92.
160. Effie J Squier, "Sojourner Truth," Zion's Herald, December 12, 1883, 1.
161. Karen Sánchez-Eppler, Touching Liberty: Abolition, Feminism, and the Politics of the Body (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 20.
162. Daphne Brooks, Bodies in Dissent: Spectacular Performances of Race and Freedom, 1850-1910 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006), 158.
163. See also Jacqueline E. Brady, "Pumping Iron with Resistance: Carla Dunlap's Victorious Body," in Recovering the Black Female Body, ed. Michael Bennett and Vanessa D. Dickerson (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2000), 253-254; and Stetson and David, Glorifying in Tribulation, 115.
164. Theodore Roosevelt, "The Strenuous Life," in The Strenuous Life: Essays and Addresses (New York: Century, 1900);
165. Josiah Strong, Our Country: Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis (New York: Baker and Taylor, 1891);
166. George Beard, American Nervousness: Its Causes and Consequences (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1881);
167. S. Weir Mitchell, Wear and Tear, or Hints for the Overworked (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott, 1897), and Characteristics (1891; repr., New York: Century, 1913);
168. G. Stanley Hall, Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relations to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion, and Education, 2 vols. (New York: D. Appleton, 1914).
169. Amy Kaplan, The Anarchy of Empire in the Making of U.S. Culture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), 121-145.
170. James Fenimore Cooper, Last of the Mohicans (New York: Penguin, 1986), 29;
171. Gail Bederman, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880-1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 15.
172. Edgar Rice Burroughs, Tarzan of the Apes (1914; repr., New York: Penguin, 1990).
173. M.V. O'Shea, "Physical Training in the Public Schools," Atlantic Monthly 75, no. 448 (February 1895): 254.
174. Arthur Conan Doyle, foreword to The Construction and Reconstruction of the Human Body: A Manual of the Therapeutics of Exercise, by Eugene Sandow (London: John Bale, Sons and Danielsson, 1907), x.
175. John Todd, The Student's Manual: Designed, by Specific Directions, to Aid in Forming and Strengthening the Intellectual and Moral Character and Habits of the Student (Northampton, MA: J.H. Butler, 1835), 260-292
176. Rufus Clark, Lectures on the Formation of Character: Temptations and Mission of Young Men (Boston: John P. Jewett, 1853), 31. See in particular Frederick A. Atkins, Moral Muscle, and How to Use It: A Brotherly Chat with Young Men (Chicago: Fleming H. Revell, 1890).
177. John DeMotte, The Secret of Character Building (Chicago: S.C. Griggs, 1894), 61.
178. G. Stanley Hall, "Educational Needs," North American Review 136 (March 1883): 284.
179. See also Charles H. Parkhurst, "Character and Muscle," Congregationalist 84, no. 7 (February 16, 1899): 227.
180. Jan Todd, Physical Culture and the Body Beautiful: Purposive Exercise in the Lives of American Women, 1800-1870 (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1998), 175.
181. See Clifford Putney, Muscular Christianity: Manhood and Sports in Protestant America, 1880-1920 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 3;
182. Donald E. Hall, ed., Muscular Christianity: Embodying the Victorian Age (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
183. Michael Anton Budd, The Sculpture Machine: Physical Culture and Body Politics in the Age of Empire (New York: New York University Press, 1997), 82.
184. Shelley Streeby, American Sensations: Class, Empire, and the Production of Popular Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 258.
185. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (New York: Vintage Books, 1995), 251.
186. See Allan Sekula, "The Body and the Archive," October 39 (Winter 1986): 3-64;
187. Shawn Michelle Smith, American Archives: Gender, Race, and Class in Visual Culture (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), 65-93.
188. Tom Sharkey, "Be a Strong Man, Not a Caricature," National Police Gazette 86, no. 438 (March 4, 1905): 7.
189. See David L. Chapman, Sandow the Magnificent: Eugene Sandow and the Beginnings of Bodybuilding (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2006).
190. Thomas Waugh, Hard to Imagine: Gay Male Eroticism in Photography and Film from Their Beginnings to Stonewall (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 184.
191. Bernarr Macfadden, Superb Virility of Manhood: Giving the Causes and Simple Home Methods of Curing the Weaknesses of Men (New York: Physical Culture, 1904), 175-176.
192. See also Graham Robb, Strangers: Homosexual Love in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Norton, 2004), 134.
193. See R. Marie Griffith, "Apostles of Abstinence: Fasting and Masculinity during the Progressive Era," American Quarterly 52, no. 4 (December 2000): 609. For an account of the role of fasting in modern bodybuilding, see Ann Bolin, "Flex Appeal, Food, and Fat: Competitive Bodybuilding, Gender, and Diet," in Moore, Building Bodies, 184-208. Special thanks to Fred Rogers for first introducing me to Macfadden's character-building obsessions.
194. Julia Seton, The Short Cut: Regeneration through Fasting (1928; repr., New York: Cosimo, 2006), 14.
195. Leslie Heywood, "Masculinity Vanishing: Bodybuilding and Contemporary Culture," in Moore, Building Bodies, 171, 174.
196. "A Boston Husband's Punishment," National Police Gazette 78, no. 1245 (June 29, 1901): 8.
197. "Shoots When Pressed," National Police Gazette 63, no. 856 (January 27, 1894), 6.
198. "Vassar Vengeance," National Police Gazette 36, no. 152 (August 21, 1880): 6.
199. Judith Halberstam, Female Masculinity (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1998), 46.
200. Judith Butler, "Imitation and Gender Insubordination," in Inside/Out: Lesbian Theories, Gay Theories, ed. Diana Fuss (New York: Routledge, 1991), 13-31.
201. Charlotte Perkins Gilman, The Living of Charlotte Perkins Gilman (New York: Arno, 1972), 29. Of the very few, sustained considerations of Gilman's interest in physical culture is Jane Lancaster's "'I Could Easily Have Been an Acrobat': Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Providence Ladies' Sanitary Gymnasium," American Transcendental Quarterly (ATQ) 8, no. 1 (March 1994): 33-52.
202. Charlotte Perkins Gilman, The Diaries of Charlotte Perkins Gilman, vol. 1, 1879-87, ed. Denise D. Knight (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1994), 6.
203. John Harvey Kellogg, Life, Its Mysteries and Miracles: A Manual of Health Principles (Battle Creek, MI: Modern Medicine, 1910), 363.
204. Catherine Beecher, Physiology and Calisthenics for Schools and Families (New York: Harper and Bros., 1856). See also Todd, Physical Culture and the Body Beautiful, 24.
205. Charlotte Perkins Gilman, "If I Were a Woman," Physical Culture, August 1914, 152-156.
206. Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Women and Economics (Boston: Small, Maynard, 1900), 33.
207. See Alys Eve Weinbaum, Wayward Reproductions: Genealogies of Race and Nation in Transatlantic Modern Thought (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004), 93-95.
208. Charlotte Perkins Gilman, What Diantha Did (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005). On the autobiographical resonances of these early narratives, see Jennifer S. Tuttle, "Rewriting the West Cure: Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Owen Wister, and the Sexual Politics of Neurasthenia," in The Mixed Legacy of Charlotte Perkins Gilman, ed. Catherine J. Golden and Joanna Schneider Zangrando (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 2000), 103-121.
209. Charlotte Perkins Gilman, The Crux (1910; repr., Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003).
210. Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Herland, The Yellow Wall-Paper, and Selected Writings (New York: Penguin, 1999).
211. Pauline Hopkins, Of One Blood; or, The Hidden Self, in The Magazine Novels of Pauline Hopkins (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 441-621.
212. Michel Foucault, "Character," in The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (New York: Vintage Books, 1973), 138-140.
213. Walter Benjamin, "Fate and Character," in Reflections, ed. Peter Demetz, trans. Edmund Jephcott (New York: Schocken Books, 1986), 309.
214. H.S. Bradley, "The Opportunity for an Object Lesson," Voice of the Negro 2, no. 1 (January 1905): 674.
215. William Hayes Ward, "A Northern Man's Message," Voice of the Negro 2, no. 1 (January 1905): 676 (original emphasis).
216. William H. Council, "A Message to the Negro Race of the Twentieth Century," Voice of the Negro 2, no. 1 (January 1905): 682.
217. Kelly Miller, "A Word to the Twentieth Century Negro," Voice of the Negro 2, no. 1 (January 1905): 678.
218. Booker T. Washington, Character Building (1903; repr., Amsterdam: Fredonia Books, 2002), 91.
219. Joseph R. Gay, Progress and Achievements of the 20th Century Negro: A Handbook for Self-Improvement Which Leads to Greater Success (New York: Western W. Wilson, 1913);
220. Elias M. Woods, The Negro in Etiquette: A Novelty (St. Louis: Buxton and Skinner, 1899);
221. Silas X. Floyd, Floyd's Flowers, or Duty and Beauty for Colored Children (Atlanta: Hertel, Jenkins, 1905);
222. Emma Azalia Hackley, The Colored Girl Beautiful (Kansas City, MO: Burton, 1916);
223. Sarah Estelle Haskin, The Handicapped Winners (Nashville, TN: Publishing House of the M.E. Church, 1922).
224. See also Katherine Capshaw Smith, "Childhood, the Body, and Race Performance: Early 20th-Century Etiquette Books for Black Children," African American Review 40, no. 4 (Winter 2006): 795-812.
225. Cathy Boeckmann, A Question of Character: Scientific Racism and the Genres of American Fiction, 1892-1912 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2000), 16.
226. Joseph Le Conte, The Race Problem in the South (1892; repr., Miami: Mnemosyne, 1969), 366.
227. See Anne Fountain, José Martí and U.S. Writers (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2003), 27-46;
228. José Martí, "Emerson," The America of José Martí, trans. Juan de Onís (New York: Noonday, 1953), 216-238.
229. See Jennifer Putzi, "'Raising the Stigma': Black Womanhood and the Marked Body in Pauline Hopkins's Contending Forces," College Literature 31, no. 2 (Spring 2004): 1-21.
230. Dana Luciano, "Passing Shadows: Melancholic Nationality and Black Critical Publicity in Pauline E. Hopkins's Of One Blood," in Loss: The Politics of Mourning, ed. David L. Eng and David Kazanjian (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 162.
231. Cited in Jonathan Scott Holloway, "Racial Conferrals and Claims: The Politics of Race Leadership in the Early Twentieth Century," review essay, American Quarterly 50, no. 2 (1998): 415-423.
232. Kevin Gaines, Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), 1-18.
233. Joseph R. Gay, Progress and Achievements of the 20th Century Negro: A Handbook for Self-Improvement Which Leads to Greater Success (New York: Western W. Wilson, 1913), 127.
234. Kelly Miller, Race Adjustment (New York: Neale, 1908), reprinted as Radicals and Conservatives (New York: Schocken Books, 1968).
235. Hazel Carby, "The Souls of Black Men," in Race Men (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998), 21.
236. Booker T. Washington, Up from Slavery: An Autobiography (New York: Modern Library, 1999), 153. Further references to this source are to this edition and are cited parenthetically in the text.
237. W.E.B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk (1903; repr., New York: Penguin Books, 1996), 79. Further references to this source are to this edition and are cited parenthetically in the text.
238. See also Thomas Augst, The Clerk's Tale: Young Men and Moral Life in Nineteenth-Century America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), 24-26.
239. See John Stuart Mill, Considerations on Representative Government (New York: Liberal Arts Press, 1958), 24-25, 47-53, 111.
240. Willard B. Gatewood, Aristocrats of Color: The Black Elite, 1880-1920 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990). While Cornel West holds that "Du Bois is the brook of fire through which we all must pass in order to gain access to the intellectual and political weaponry needed to sustain the radical democratic tradition in our time," he also identifies Du Bois's notion of the talented tenth as the Achilles heel that reveals the "philosophic inadequacy" of his "interpretation of the human condition." West, "Black Strivings in a Twilight Civilization," 55-56.
241. Frederick Douglass, "What Are the Colored People Doing for Themselves?" (1848), in Negro Social and Political Thought, ed. Howard Brotz (New York: Basic Books, 1966), 207.
242. Pauline Hopkins, Contending Forces: A Romance Illustrative of Negro Life North and South (1900; repr., New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 13. Further references to the novel are to this edition and are cited parenthetically in the text.
243. Barbara Christian, "Images of Black Women in Afro-American Literature: From Stereotype to Character," in Black Feminist Criticism: Perspectives on Black Women Writers (New York: Pergamon, 1985), 19.
244. Ann duCille, The Coupling Convention: Sex, Text, and the Tradition in Black Women's Fiction (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 38.
245. See Colleen C. O'Brien, "'Blacks in All Quarters of the Globe': Anti-Imperialism, Insurgent Cosmopolitanism, and International Labor in Pauline Hopkins's Literary Journalism," American Quarterly 61, no. 2 (June 2009): 245-270.
246. See Eve Allegra Raimon, The "Tragic Mulatta" Revisited: Race and Nationalism in Nineteenth-Century Antislavery Fiction (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2004).
247. Amy Robinson, "It Takes One to Know One: Passing and Communities of Common Interest, Critical Inquiry 20 (1994): 716.
248. Mary Dearborn, Pocahontas's Daughters: Gender and Ethnicity in American Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 74.
249. Claudia Tate, Domestic Allegories of Political Desire: The Black Heroine's Text at the Turn of the Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 14.
250. John Todd, The Daughter at School (Northampton, MA: Hopkins, Bridgman, 1854), 207.
251. Houston Baker, Workings of the Spirit: The Poetics of Afro-American Women's Writing (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 26.
252. O.P. Furnas, "Our Mothers," Herald of Gospel Liberty 112, no. 19 (May 6, 1920): 441.
253. Frances Willard, "Scientific Temperance Instruction in the Public Schools," Arena 12, no. 64 (March 1895): 10.
254. Kathleen D. McCarthy, Noblesse Oblige: Charity and Cultural Philanthropy in Chicago, 1849-1929 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 109;
255. Michael B. Katz, In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America (New York: Basic Books, 1986), 162.
256. Jane Addams, "Social Attitudes and Character," in Building Character: Proceedings of the Mid-West Conference on Character Development, February, 1928, The Chicago Association for Child Study and Parent Education (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1928), 294-295.
257. John Todd, The Daughter at School (Northampton, MA: Hopkins, Bridgman, 1854), 207, 208.
258. David I. Macleod, Building Character in the American Boy: The Boy Scouts, YMCA, and Their Forerunners, 1870-1920 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983), 44-59.
259. Sarah C. Edgarton, "Female Culture," Mother's Assistant 3 (1843): 94-95, reprinted in Antebellum American Culture, ed. David Brion Davis (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1979), 77.
260. Catherine Beecher, A Treatise on Domestic Economy (1841; repr., New York: Schocken Books, 1977), 13.
261. Jane Addams, Twenty Years at Hull-House (1910; repr., New York: Penguin Books, 1998), 61. Further references to this work are to this edition and are cited parenthetically in the text.
262. Allen F. Davis, American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2000), 160, 162.
263. Pierre Bourdieu, "Delegation and Political Fetishism," in Language and Symbolic Power, trans. Gino Raymond and Matthew Adamson (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), 203-219.
264. Scott Nearing, Social Adjustment (New York: Macmillan, 1910), vii.
265. Jane Addams, Democracy and Social Ethics (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2002), 6. Further references to this work are to this edition and are cited parenthetically in the text.
266. George M. Beard, American Nervousness: Its Causes and Consequences (New York, 1881).
267. Robert H. Bremner, American Philanthropy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 95.
268. Frank Dekker Watson, The Charity Organization Movement in the United States: A Study in American Philanthropy (New York: Macmillan, 1922), 101.
269. E.E. Kellogg, Studies in Character Building: A Book for Parents (Battle Creek, MI: Good Health, 1905), 112, 23.
270. Richard Henry Pratt, "The Advantages of Mingling Indians with Whites," in Americanizing the American Indians: Writings by the "Friends of the Indian," 1880-1900, ed. Francis Paul Prucha (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973), 260.
271. Jane Addams, "Americanization," Publications (American Sociological Society) 14 (1919), reprinted in Elshtain, Jane Addams Reader, 244.
272. Louis Menand, introduction to Pragmatism: A Reader, ed. Louis Menand (New York: Vintage Books, 1997).
273. See Michael A. Elliot, The Culture Concept: Writing and Difference in the Age of Realism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002);
274. Brad Evans, Before Cultures: The Ethnographic Imagination in American Literature, 1865-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005).
275. Jane Addams, The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets (New York: Macmillan, 1921), 83-84.
276. Katherine Joslin, Jane Addams: A Writer's Life (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004), 61.