Newark: A history of race, rights, and riots in America

Newark: A History of Race, Rights, and Riots in America

Volumn , Issue , 2007, Pages 1-308

  Mumford, Kevin ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF IOWA   (United States)

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EID: 84900651876     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
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References (554)

1. Important studies include Susan Hirsch, The Roots of the American Working Class: The Industrialization of Crafts in Newark, 1800-1860 (Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press, 1978);.
2. John Cunningham, Newark (Newark: Newark Historical Society, 1966).
3. Thomas Bender, "Wholes and Parts: The Need for Synthesis in American History," Journal of American History 73 (1986), pp. 120-36.
4. Kevin Mumford, "Double V in New Jersey: African-American Civic Culture and Rising Consciousness Against Jim Crow, 1938-1966," New Jersey History, 119, nos. 3-4 (Fall/Winter 2001), p. 50.
5. Kenneth Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985);.
6. Lizabeth Cohen, A Consumer's Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America (New York: Knopf, 2003).
7. On the ghetto synthesis, see Robert A. Beauregard, Voices of Decline: The Postwar Fate of U.S. Cities (New York: Routledge, 2003), pp. 150-78;.
8. David Roediger, Working toward Whiteness: How America's Immigrants Became White (New York: Basic, 2005), pp. 163-68.
9. Nicholas Lemann, The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America (New York: Knopf, 1991);.
10. Mike Davis, City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles (New York: Verso, 1990).
11. Lemann, The Promised Land; Thomas Sugrue, Origins of Urban Crisis:Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996);.
12. Robert Self, American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003);.
13. Wendell Pritchet, Brownsville, Brooklyn: Blacks, Jews, and the Changing Face of the Ghetto (Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 2002);.
14. Craig Wilder, A Covenant with Color: Race and Social Power in Brooklyn (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000).
15. Robin D. G. Kelley, Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class (New York: The Free Press, 1994);.
16. Kimberley L. Phillips, AlabamaNorth:Migrants, Community, and Working-Class Activism in Cleveland, 1915-1945 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000);.
17. Matha Biondi, To Stand and Fight:225 The Civil Rights Movement in Postwar New York City (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003);.
18. see Matthew J. Countryman, "Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia, 1940-1971," (Ph.D. dissertation, Duke University, 1998);.
19. Winston James, Holding Aloft the Banner of Ethiopia: Caribbean Radicalism in Early Twentieth Century America (New York: Verso, 1998);.
20. Gerald Horne, Black Liberation/Red Scare: Ben Davis and the Communist Party (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1994);.
21. Tera W. Hunter, To 'Joy My Freedom: Southern Black Women's Lives and Labor after the Civil War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997);.
22. Joe W. Trotter, Jr., Black Milwaukee:The Making of an Industrial Proletariat, 1915-1945 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985).
23. Studies that examine black migration in the context of politics include Adam Cohen and Elizabeth Taylor, American Pharaoh: Mayor Richard J. Daley and His Battle for Chicago and the Nation (New York: Back Bay, 2000);.
24. Buzz Bissinger, A Prayer for the City (New York: Random House, 1997);.
25. Randall Kenan, Walking on Water: Black American Lives at the End of the 21st Century (New York: Random House, 1999).
26. On the cultural politics of social movements and radical politics more generally, see Waldo E. Martin, Jr., No Coward Soldiers: Black Cultural Politics and Postwar America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), p. 7;.
27. see also Michael Denning, The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century (London: Verso, 1996);.
28. Kelley, Race Rebels;.
29. William Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965-1975 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992);.
30. Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993);.
31. on traditional politics see Harvard Sitkoff, The Struggle for Black Equality, 1954-1992, rev. ed. (New York:Hill and Wang, 1993);.
32. Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in America (Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi, 1991).
33. Michael C. Dawson, Black Visions: The Roots of Contemporary African-American Political Ideologies (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001).
34. Michael J. Sandel, Public Philosophy: Essays on Morality in Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005).
35. Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987);.
36. Etienne Balibar, We, The People of Europe? Reflections on Transnational Citizenship (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004), p. 119.
37. Chris Rhomberg, No There There: Race, Class, and Political Community in Oakland (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), p. 9.
38. Robert Putnam, "Bowling Along: America's Declining Social Capital," Journal of De- mocracy 6, no. 1 (January 1995), pp. 60-65;.
39. Doug McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982).
40. The Black Public Sphere: A Public Culture Book, ed. The Black Public Sphere Collective (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995);.
41. Nancy Fraser, "Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the ritique of Actually Existing Democracy," in Habermas and the Public Sphere, ed. Craig Calhoun (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992), pp. 109-42;.
42. Civic Engagement in American Democracy, ed. Theda Skocpol and Morris P. Fiorina (New York: Russell Sage, 1999), esp. pp. 70-71, 469;.
43. a multicultural approach to the public that errs by eliminating race as a substantial democratic problem while deliberating on the polity and gender, the polity and class, is Nancy Fraser, Justice Interruptus: Critical Reflections on the "Post-Socialist" Condition (New York: Routledge, 1997);.
44. on the fractious city, see Mary Ryan, Civic Wars: The People and Public in the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996);.
45. Gary Gerstle, American Crucible: Race and the Nation in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000);.
46. revisioning public culture is David Henkin, City Reading: Written Words and Public Spaces in Antebellum New York (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998);.
47. Vanessa Schwartz, Spectacular Realities: Mass Culture in Fin de Siècle Paris (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997);.
48. Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (New York: Modern Library, 1961, 1993);.
49. for an important discussion of Jacobs, see James Scott, Seeing Like the State (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997);.
50. on the interracial public sphere, see St. Clare Drake and Horace Cayton, Black Metropolis: A Study of Black Life in a City (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1944, 1994);.
51. on interracial liberalism in postwar public life, Walter Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America's Conscience: Social Engineering and Racial Liberalism, 1938-1987 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988);.
52. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York: Harper and Row, 1944);.
53. on federalism and localism, a central and pervasively argued thesis is Morton Keller's Affairs of State:Politics and Society in the United States, 1865-1917 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984);.
54. for a critique of popular democracy, see Jean Baudrillard, The Illusion of the End Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1995);.
55. on De Tocqueville, see Claude Lefort, Democracy and Political Theory, trans. David Macey (New York: Polity, 1988), esp. pp. 190-97.
56. The most eloquent writing on this point is Dipesh Chakrabarty, Habitats of Modernity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004).
57. On the disintegration of the traditional black public sphere, see Dawson, Black Vision, pp. 36-40.
58. Pioneering in the public sphere in relation to African American history is Evelyn Brooks-Higginbotham, Righteous Discontent: The Women's Movement in the Black Baptist Church, 1880-1920 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993);.
59. an early example of conceptualizing organizations as activism is Rosalyn Terborg-Penn, "African-American Women's Networks in the Anti-Lynching Crusade," in Gender, Class, Race, and Reform in the Progressive Era, ed. Noral Lee Frankel and Nancy S. Dye (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1991);.
60. Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore, Gender and Jim Crow: Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896-1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997);.
61. Elsa Barkley Brown, "Negotiating and Transforming the Public Sphere: African-American Political Life in the Transition from Slavery to Freedom," Public Culture 7 (1994), pp. 107-46;.
62. on white women, see Mary P. Ryan, Women in Public: Between Banners and Ballots, 1825-1880 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990).
63. Anthony Appiah, The Ethics of Identity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), pp. 60-61.
64. The difference between Barbara Fields's first and revised interpretation of racial ideology concerns this very point of citizenship as a contested, not merely mediated, terrain. See Barbara Jeanne Fields, "Slavery, Race, and Ideology in the United States," New Left Review 181, no. 1 (1990), pp. 95-118.
65. Seyla Benhabib, The Claims of Culture: Equality and Diversity in the Global Era (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002), pp. 60-61;.
66. on black nationalism in Newark, see Komozi Woodard, A Nation within A Nation: Amiri Baraka and the Politics of Black Nationalism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999).
67. Exhaustive research on World War II northern civil rights legislation is Sidney Fine, Expanding the Frontier of Civil Rights: Michigan, 1948-1968 (Detroit:Wayne State University Press, 2000).
68. The phrase informs a study of middle-class experience by Sheryl Cashin, The Failures of Integration: How Race and Class Are Undermining the American Dream (New York: Public Affairs, 2004).
69. Lewis Mumford, The City in History: Its Origins, Its Transformations, and Its Prospects (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, 1961), p. 474.
70. Mary P. Ryan, Civic Wars: Democracy and Public Life in the American City during the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), pp. 78-84, 108-10.
71. On civic culture, see John Ehrenberg, Civil Society: The Critical History of an Idea (New York: New York University Press, 1999), 109-43;.
72. Robert Putnam, "Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital," Journal of Democracy 6, no. 1 (January 1995), pp. 65-78;.
73. Charles Taylor, "Modes of Civil Society," Dissent, Spring 1991, pp. 293-304;.
74. Garbiel Almond and Sidney Verba, The Civic Culture (Boston: Little, Brown, 1965);.
75. on Tocqueville and membership organizations, see Theda Skocpol and Morris Fiorina, eds., The Civic Engagement in American Democracy (New York: Brookings Institution Press, 1999);.
76. on race, ethnicity, and legal definitions of national inclusion, see Rogers Smith, Civic Ideals: Conflicting Visions of Citizenship in the United States (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997).
77. Classic accounts of the New York machine, which do not yet emphasize immigration, begin with Harold F. Gosnell, Boss Platt and His New York Machine (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1924);.
78. Harold Zink, City Bosses in the United States: A Study of Twenty Municipal Bosses (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1930);.
79. Alex Gottfried, Boss Cermak of Chicago: A Study of Political Leadership (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1962), p. 355;.
80. John M. Allswang, Bosses Machines, and Urban Voters (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977), pp. 60-65.
81. For this formulation, see Ryan, Civic Wars, p. 90.
82. Tom Flemming, A Real History of Newark and Notable Newarkers (Newark, 1916), pp. 62-68;.
83. John Cunningham, Newark (Newark: Newark Historical Society, 1966).
84. Lee Calligaro, "The Negro's Legal Status in Pre-Civil War New Jersey," New Jersey History (Spring, 1971), pp. 155-66.
85. Newark: Chronological and Documentary History, ed. Arnold Rice (Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana, 1977).
86. Marion Thompson Wright, "The Early Years," Journal of Negro History 26, no. 2 (April 1943), pp. 159-161. Free black men found work in Newark as day laborers and in skilled trades, and black women found domestic work in wealthy white homes, but returned to their families in the evening rather than live in.
87. See Graham Russell Hodges, Root and Branch: African-Americans in New York and East Jersey, 1613-1863 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), p. 238;.
88. Calligaro, "The Negro's Legal Status," p. 176.
89. Marion Thompson Wright, "A Dramatic Historical Event (in Negro Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776-1875)," Journal of Negro History 33, no. 2 (April 1948), pp. 168-71;.
90. idem, "The Early Years of the Republic (in Negro Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776-1875)," Journal of Negro History 33, no. 2 (April 1948), pp. 223-24;.
91. idem, "A Period of Transition, 1804-1865," Journal of Negro History 33, no. 2 (April 1948), pp. 177-83;.
92. idem, "Early History (in New Jersey Laws and the Negro)," Journal of Negro History 28, no. 2. (April 1943), pp. 159-61.
93. Calligaro, "The Negro's Legal Status," p. 166;.
94. Frances D. Pingeon, "Dissenting Attitudes toward the Negro in New Jersey-1837," New Jersey History 89, no. 1 (Spring 1971).
95. City of Newark, Know Your City Government, City of Progress (1965), NHS; Douglas P. Seaton, "Colonizers and Reluctant Colonists: The New Jersey Colonization Society and the Black Community," New Jersey History (Spring-Summer 1978), pp. 16-19.
96. Craig Steven Wilder, In the Company of Black Men: The African Influence on African American Culture in New York City (New York: New York University Press, 2001);.
97. Patrick Rael, Black Identity and Black Protest in the Antebellum North (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002);.
98. James Oliver Horton and Lois E. Horton, In Hope of Liberty: Culture, Community, and Protest among Northern Free Blacks, 1700-1860 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).
99. John Anderson, Black Education in the Nineteenth Century (published by New Jersey Urban History Association, 1976), NHS;.
100. Robert Turk, "Public Schools in the City of Newark" (Ph.D. dissertation, Rutgers University, 1967), pp. 83-88;.
101. Hodges, Root and Branch, p. 220;.
102. on Baptists in Newark, see Rev. Edgar M. Levy, Newark Baptist Mission (Newark, 1869), NHS, which does not mention black issues or worshipers;.
103. Spencer Crew, "Black New Jersey before the Civil War: Case Studies," New Jersey History 99 (Summer 1981), pp. 82-84.
104. Hodges, Root and Branch, p. 256;.
105. quoted in William B. Gravely, "The Dialectic of Double Consciousness in Black American Freedom Celebration, 1808-1863," Journal of Negro History 67, no. 4 (Winter 1982), p. 311.
106. Rice, ed., Newark: Chronological History;.
107. Carl Hatch, "Trenton's David Naar: Profile of the Anti-Negro Mind," New Jersey History 86, no. 2 (Summer 1968), p. 69.
108. Hodges, Root and Branch, p. 269;.
109. Marion Thompson Wright, "Extending the Suffrage," Journal of Negro History 33, no. 2 (April 1948), pp. 205-7.
110. On African American male population and voting, see Wright, "Extending the Suffrage," pp. 90-95;.
111. David Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (London: Verso, 1990); on white industrialization in Newark, see Susan Hirsch, Roots of the American Working Class.
112. Marion Thompson Wright, "Extending Civil Rights in New Jersey through the Division against Discrimination," Journal of Negro History 38, no. 1 (January 1953), pp. 96, 101;.
113. Marion Thompson Wright, The Education of the Negro in New Jersey (New York: Columbia University Press, 1941). Interracial meetings convened in the mid-1940s promoted desegregation of state schools;.
114. E. Marvin Goodwin, Black Migration in America from 1915 to 1960:An Uneasy Exodus (New York: Mellen, 1990), p. 21.
115. Paul Stellhorn, "Depression and Decline, Newark, New Jersey, 1929-1941," (Ph.D. dissertation, Rutgers University, 1982), pp. 7-8;.
116. Clement Alexander Price, "The Afro-American Community of Newark, 1917-1947: A Social History," (Ph.D. dissertation, Rutgers University, 1975), p. 72.
117. The Neighborhood House, NHS, pp. 3-8.
118. Kelly Miller, Race Adjustment: Essays on the Negro in America (New York: Neale, 1909), pp. 171-81;.
119. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Negroes in the United States, 1920-1932 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1935);.
120. Arnesen, Black Protest and Migration, pp. 3-34;.
121. Deborah Gray White, Ar'n't I aWoman: Female Slavery in the Antebellum South (New York: Norton, 1985);.
122. Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, Within the Plantation Household: Black and White Women of the Old South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988);.
123. Hazel Carby, "Policing the Black Women's Body in an Urban Context," Critical Inquiry 13 (Summer 1993), pp. 739-52.
124. Price, "Afro-Americans in Newark," p. 128 (table 5.5).
125. Price, "Afro-Americans in Newark," p. 127;.
126. Mary White Ovington, Half a Man: The Status of the Negro in New York (New York: Negro Universities Press, 1911), pp. 152-53.
127. See "Reports from the Convention" (8-3-1920), Rev. J. W. Locke, quoted in Robert Hill, ed., The Marcus Garvey and UNIA Papers, vol. 2, pp. 522-23.
128. On ethnic composition, see Thomas Philpot, The Slum and the Ghetto:Neighborhood Deterioration and Middle-Class Reform, Chicago, 1880-1930 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), pp. 147-48;.
129. for the racial discrimination synthesis, see Alan Spear, Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto, 1890-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967), pp. 91-110.
130. Planning Board in Essex, North Jersey-Prospects and Development Problems 1949, p. 1, Frances Loeb Library, Harvard.
131. See Charles Allan Baretski, "Newark Public Library," in Stanley Winters, ed., From Riot to Recovery:Newark after Ten Years (Washington, D.C.: University Press of America, 1979);.
132. Harold Kaplan, Urban Renewal Politics: Slum Clearance in Newark (New York:Columbia University Press, 1963), p. 149;.
133. Urban Atlas, Newark, New Jersey, UA-SMSA 5640-1 (U.S. Census Bureau, 1970).
134. Price, "The Afro-American Community of Newark," p. 31.
135. Michael Dawson, "A Black Counterpublic? Economic Earthquakes, Racial Agenda(s), and Black Politics," in The Black Public Sphere, ed. The Black Public Sphere Collective (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), p. 201.
136. Kenneth Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1975), pp. 78, 136-37.
137. Paul Stellhorn, "Depression and Decline, Newark, New Jersey, 1929-1941" (Ph.D. dissertation, Rutgers University, 1982), pp. 7-8;.
138. Price, "Afro-American Community," p. 72.
139. Historical Statistics of Black America, vol. 2 (New York: Gale Research, 2000), pp. 361, 407-9.
140. Spear, Black Chicago, pp. 12-14, 24-27;.
141. Goodwin, Black Migration, p. 23;.
142. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis, p. 44.
143. Harry Davis, "Alpha Lodge, No. 116. New Jersey: An Extract," Journal of Negro History 20, no. 2 (April 1935), pp. 180-89;.
144. C. G. Woodson, "The Negro in Banking," Journal of Negro History 14, no. 2 (April 1929), pp. 156-201;.
145. on African American and black Caribbean organizations and community formation, see Irma Watkins-Owens, Blood Relations: Caribbean Immigrants and the Harlem Community, 1900-1930 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996), pp. 57-74, 127-35;.
146. on accommodation entrepreneurs in the North, see Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape, pp. 135-39;.
147. Spear, Black Chicago, pp. 106-10.
148. Clement Price, "The Beleaguered City as Promised Land: Blacks in Newark, 1917-1947," in Urban New Jersey since 1870, ed. Willliam C. Wright (Trenton, NJ: The New Jersey Historical Commission, 1975), pp. 14-17.
149. Warren Grover, Nazis in Newark (New Brunswick: Transaction, 2003), pp. 143-44;.
150. William Ashby, Tales without Hate (Newark: Upland Press, 2001), pp. 71-74, 78.
151. According to one report, "next to Detroit in advance of colored women in industry during the war comes Newark" see Forrester B. Washington, "Reconstruction and the Colored Woman, Life and Land" (January 1919), reprinted in Arnesen, Black Protest and the Great Migration, pp. 152-53.
152. See "Summary on Newark," August 1924, in Robert Hill, ed., Marcus Garvey and UNIA Papers, vol. 5, p. 659.
153. On Father Divine, see Jill Watts, God, Harlem, USA: The Father Devine Story (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992).
154. Grover, Nazis in Newark, pp. 223-24.
155. Charles W. Churchill, The Italians of Newark: A Community Study (New York: Arno, 1975), p. 25.
156. Churchill, The Italians of Newark, pp. 27, 33;.
157. Alan H. Spear, Black Chicago:The Making of a Negro Ghetto, 1890-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967), pp. 159-64;.
158. William Tuttle, Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919 (New York: Atheneum, 1970), pp. 156-83;.
159. for example, see "Free Assistance for Alien Registration Is Offered By Vaca Travel," Italian Tribune (1-16-53).
160. Price, "The Afro-American Community of Newark," pp. 116, 122;.
161. Sixteenth Census of the United States, Population, vol. 11, part 4, table 13, pp. 205-6, 209-10.
162. Robert Orsi, "The Religious Boundaries of an In-Between People: Street Fetes and the Problem of the Dark-Skinned Other in Italian Harlem, 1920-1990," American Quarterly 44, no. 3 (September 1992), pp. 313-347;.
163. on the culture of the Italian procession, see the excellent work of Joseph Sciorra, "'We Go Where the Italians Live': Religious Processions as Ethnic and Territorial Markers in a Multi-ethnic Brooklyn Neighborhood," in Robert Orsi, ed., Gods of the City: Religion and the American Urban Landscape (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), pp. 330-32;.
164. a pioneering study is Susan Davis, Parades and Power: Street Theatre in Nineteenth Century Philadelphia (Philadelphia:Temple University Press, 1986), pp. 2-22.
165. Alessandro Falassi, "Festival: De- finition and Morphology," in Time Out of Time: Essays on the Festival, ed. Alessandro Falassi (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1987), pp. 173-80.
166. This school applied to Newark; see Peter I. Rose, Racial and Ethnic Tensions:Racial and Ethnic Relations in the United States (New York: Random House, 1964), pp. 97-99;.
167. Robert Penn Warren, Segregation: The Inner Conflict in the South (New York: Random House, 1956);.
168. Talcott Parsons, The Social System (Glencoe: Free Press, 1951);.
169. Everett V. Stonequist, The Marginal Man (New York: Scribner's, 1937);.
170. Brewton Berry, Race and Ethnic Relations (Boston:Houghton Mifflin, 1958);.
171. Oscar Handlin, The Newcomers: Negroes and Puerto Ricans in a Changing Metropolis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959).
172. Grover, Nazis in Newark, pp. 5, 21, 119, 124.
173. Clement Price, "The Struggle to Desegregate Newark: Black Middle Class Militancy in New Jersey, 1932-1947," New Jersey History (1980-81), p. 234;.
174. Grover, Nazis in Newark, pp. 238, 258.
175. Komozi Woodard, A Nation within a Nation: Amiri Baraka (Le Roi Jones) and Black Power Politics (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), pp. 33, 35;.
176. Cheryl Greenberg, Or Does It Explode: Black Harlem in the Great Depression (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991);.
177. Winston James, Holding Aloft the Banner of Ethiopia: Caribbean Radicalism in Early Twentieth Century America (New York: Verso, 1998);.
178. Mark Naison, Communists in Harlem during the Depression (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983);.
179. Tony Martin, Race First: The Ideological and Organizational Struggles of Marcus Garvey and Negro Improvement Association (Westport, Conn.:Greenwich, 1976);.
180. Depression-era Newark was not particularly a rich site of labor organizing much less a labor-led civil rights movement. On Detroit, see Beth T. Bates, "Double V for Victory Mobilizes Black Detroit, 1941-1946," in Komozi Woodard, ed., Freedom North: The Civil Rights Movement in the North (New York: Palgrave, 2002);.
181. Beth T. Bates, "A New Crowd Challenged the Agenda of the Old Guard in the NAACP, 1933-1941," American Historical Review 102, no. 2 (April 1997), pp. 340-77.
182. William L. O'Neill, A Democracy at War: America's Fight at Home and Abroad in World War II (New York: The Free Press, 1993);.
183. For example, see Philip Klinker with Rogers Smith, The Unsteady March:The Rise and Decline of Racial Equality in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), pp. 189-90;.
184. Alan Brinkley, American History: A Survey (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999), p. 939;.
185. Beth Bailey and David Farber, "The 'Double V' Campaign in World War II Hawaii: African-Americans, Racial Ideology, and Federal Power," Journal of Social History 26, no. 4 (Summer 1993), pp. 817-43;.
186. Peter J. Kellog, "Civil Rights Consciousness in the 1940s," Historian 42, no. I November 1979), pp. 18-41;.
187. Patrick Washburn, "The Pittsburgh Courier's Double V Campaign in 1942," American Journalism 3, no. 2 (1986), pp. 73-86.
188. On public accommodations, see Joseph Singer, "No Right to Exclude:Public Accommodations and Private Property," Northwestern University Law Review 90, no. 4 (Summer 1996), p. 1485;.
189. Marion Wright Thompson, "Extending Civil Rights in New Jersey through the Division against Discrimination," Journal of Negro History 38, no. 1 (January 1953), pp. 93-96;.
190. Marion Thompson Wright, "Intensified Battles for Emancipation and the Rights of Citizenship (in Negro Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776-1875)," Journal of Negro History 33, no. 2 (April 1948), pp. 184-223.
191. Thompson, "Extending Civil Rights in New Jersey";.
192. idem, "A Dramatic Historical Event (in Negro Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776-1875); Journal of Negro History 33, no. 2 (April 1948), pp. 168-71;.
193. idem, "Intensified Battles for Emancipation and the Rights of Citizenship (in Negro Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776-1875), Journal of Negro History 33, no. 2 (April 1948), pp. 168-71;.
194. idem, "The Early Years of the Republic (in Negro Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776-1875)," Journal of Negro History 33, no. 2 (April 1948), pp. 223-24;.
195. idem, "A Period of Transition, 1804-1865," Journal of Negro History 33, no. 2 (April 1948), pp. 177-83;.
196. idem, "Early History (in New Jersey Laws and the Negro)," Journal of Negro History 28, no. 2 (April 1943), pp. 151-61.
197. On the black press, see David Scott Domke, "The Press, Social Change, and Race Relations in the Late Nineteenth Century" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1996).
198. Before Double V, the press covered equal protection legislation and schooling in particular; see Penelope Laconia Bullock, "The Negro Periodical Press in the United States, 1838-1909" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1971);.
199. Reginald Lee Owens, "The African American Press as a Response to Oppression: Trends in Formation and Circulation" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Texas-Austin, 1993).
200. Lee Finkle, "The Conservative Aims of Militant Rhetoric: Black Protest during World War II," Journal of American History 60, no. 3 (December 1973), p. 694.
201. Marian Anderson, My Lord, What a Morning: An Autobiography (New York, 1956), p. 207;.
202. On the convergence of anti-Semitism and racism, see George Fredrickson, Racism: A Short History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002), pp. 103-38;.
203. The National Urban League of Newark, Annual Report (1940), p. 7, NPL.
204. Clement Price, "The Struggle to Desegregate Newark: Black Middle Class Militancy in New Jersey, 1932-1947," New Jersey History (1980-81), p. 234.
205. On the decline of scientific racism, see Hamilton Cravens, The Triumph of Evolution: American Scientists and the Heredity-Environment Controversy, 1900-1941 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1978).
206. David Roediger, Working toward Whiteness: How America's Immigrants Became White (New York: Basic Books, 2005), pp. 23-26.
207. Josef Barton, Peasants and Strangers: Italians, Rumanians, and Slovaks in an American City, 1890-1950 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975), pp. 166-69.
208. Charles W. Churchill, The Italians of Newark: A Community Study (New York: Arno, 1975; original published 1942), pp. 58-59, 74-75, 87.
209. National Collegiate Athletic Association, Swimming Guide (Nat. College Athletic Assoc., 1941);.
210. Richard Peterson, "How I Have Included Christian Emphasis on Teaching Young Boys to Swim," Journal of Physical Education 56, no. 1 (1958), p. 3.
211. Newark Directory (Price and Lee Co., 1947).
212. Newark Municipal Yearbook (1945-49), p. 133.
213. Robert Burchwell, James Hughes, and George Sternleib, "Housing Costs and Housing Restraints: Newark, New Jersey" (New Brunswick, NJ: Center for Urban Social Research, 1970), report, p. 25;.
214. Economic Development of the Greater Newark Area (1956), pp. 54-56, 73-75;.
215. Economic Development of the Greater Newark Area (1956), pp. 54-56, 73-75, NHS.
216. Sherry Ortner, New Jersey Dreaming: Capital, Culture, and the Class of '58 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003), pp. 53, 60.
217. On Chicago, see Arnold Hirsch, "Massive Resistance in the Urban North: Trumbull Park, Chicago, 1953-1966," Journal of American History 82, no. 2 (September 1995), pp. 522-49;.
218. on Detroit, see Thomas Sugrue, "Crabgrass-Roots Politics: Race, Rights, and Reaction against Liberalism in the Urban North," Journal of American History 82 (September 1995), pp. 551-78;.
219. "Columbians," Italian Tribune (2-6-53), p. 9;.
220. "Rodino, Addonizio, Matturri, Vilanni Support Housing," Italian Tribune (2-8-52); on negative fallout, see "All in A Week," Italian Tribune (7-2-55).
221. "Resident's Views on Inter-Group Relations and Statistical Tables," in Newark: A City In Transition, vol. 2.
222. Self, American Babylon, pp. 23-57;.
223. Heather Ann Thompson, Whose Detroit? Politics, Labor, and Race in a Modern American City (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001), pp. 9-27.
224. Benjamin J. Davis, "The McCarran Act and the Negro Freedom Movement," Freedomways, vol. 3, no. 2 (Spring 1963), pp. 198-201.
225. Kenneth Clark, Dark Ghetto: The Dilemmas of Social Power (New York: Harper, 1965);.
226. Alice O'Connor, Poverty Knowledge: Social Science, Social Policy, and the Poor in Twentieth-Century U.S. History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), pp. 200-4;.
227. for those promoting liberal policies, see Daryl Michael Scott, Contempt and Pity: Social Policy and the Image of the Damaged Black Psyche, 1880-1996 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), pp. 150-55.
228. Kaplan, Urban Renewal Politics, p. 52.
229. Curvin, "The Persistent Minority," pp. 16-20;.
230. Robert Curvin, "Black Ghetto Politics in Newark before World War II," in Joel Schwartz and David Prosser, eds., Cities of the Garden State: Essays in the Urban and Suburban History of New Jersey (Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt, 1977), p.147;.
231. for a critique of black politicians in the machine as more conservative than their constituency, see William J. Grimshaw, Bitter Fruit: Black Politics and the Chicago Machine, 1931-1991 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), pp. 107-112.
232. Douglass S. Massey and Nancy A. Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), p. 76.
233. Massey and Denton, American Apartheid, p. 48.
234. Douglass S. Massey and Shawn M. Kanaiaupuni, "Public Housing and the Concentration of Poverty," Social Science Quarterly 74, no. 1 (March 1993), pp. 109-22;.
235. on white resistance in Chicago, see Peter Rossi and Robert A. Dentler, The Politics of Urban Renewal: The Chicago Findings (New York:Free Press, 1961), pp. 180-81.
236. On segregation due to FHA/Public Housing distribution in Chicago, see Edwin Berry and Walter Stafford, The Racial Aspects of Urban Planning (Chicago: Chicago Urban League, 1968), pp. 54-55;.
237. William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).
238. Newark: A City in Transition, vol. 3, p. 39.
239. Newark: A City in Transition, vol. 2, p. 81.
240. Evelyn Brooks-Higginbotham, "Foreword," in Jeanne F. Theoharis and Komozi Woodard, eds., Freedom North: Black Freedom Struggles in the North, 1940-1980 (New York: Palgrave, 2003), pp. viii-xiv.
241. Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981);.
242. Barbara Ransby, Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement: A Radical Democratic Vision (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), pp. 344-52.
243. Thomas Bender, Toward an Urban Vision: Ideas and Institutions in Nineteenth-Century America (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1975), pp. 151-57.
244. On the genealogy of the new activist and their tactical repertoires, a number of literatures pertain. On Saul Alinsky's influence in ERAP and GROIN activism, see Jennifer Frost, Interracial Movement of the Poor: Community Organizing and the New Left in the 1960s (New York: New York University Press, 2002), pp. 170-71;.
245. for civil rights roots, such as "situational democracy" and the "outsider within," see Barbara Ransby, Ella Baker, pp. 105-46, 366-70;.
246. on the organizing tradition and formal political systems, see Andrew Sable, Ruling Passions: Political Offices and Democratic Ethics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), pp. 266-76;.
247. Douglass Eldridge, "Inter-racial Action," Newark News (March 22, 1964);.
248. Howard A. Palley, "Community Action, Public Programs, and Youth Unemployment:A Case Study of Newark, New Jersey," Journal of Negro Education 36, no. 2 (Spring, 1967), p. 102.
249. Margaret Anne Shapiro, "Race, Class, and Ideology: The Black Community's Response to Three Organizations in Newark, N.J., 1960-1970" (Senior thesis, Radcliffe College, 1977), pp. 35-40.
250. Michael B. Katz, Mark J. Stern, and Jamie J. Fader, "The New African-American Inequality," Journal of American History, June 2005, pp. 100-101.
251. Meier and Rudwick, CORE, pp. 73-73.
252. Wini Breines, Community Organization and the New Left, 1962-1968:The Great Refusal (South Hadley, MA: Praeger, 1982), p. 26;.
253. for a similar analysis, see Sara Evans, Personal Politics: The Roots of Women's Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left (New York: Knopf, 1979).
254. David Milton Gerwin, "The End of Coalition: The Failure of Community Organizing in Newark in the 1960s" (Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1998), p. 10.
255. Al Haber and Sandra Carson, "Civil Rights in the North," pp. 2, 3, 4, reel 37, SDS Papers.
256. "Students Organizing the Poor in North Cities," (n.d.) reel 14, series 2-B, no. 76, SDS Papers;.
257. on SDS and Michael Harrington. See also Tom Hayden, Reunion: A Memoir (New York: Random House, 1988), pp. 89-93; Newark News (2-5-65).
258. Tom Hayden, Reunion, pp. 25-52, 98.
259. Howard A. Palley, "Community Action, Public Programs, and Youth Unemployment: A Case Study of Newark, New Jersey," Journal of Negro Education 36, no. 2 (Spring 1967), p. 107;.
260. Frederich E. Ewing, An Outline of Activity Relating to the War on Poverty in Newark, New Jersey (Newark: Bureau of Municipal Research, 1965).
261. Newark: A City in Transition, vol. 3, p. 17;.
262. Sternlieb, The Tenement Landlord, pp. 150, 75, 131, 137. The report concluded that the black renters "may be getting poorer facilities for more money.".
263. Sternlieb, The Tenement Landlord, pp. 180, 183.
264. Gerwin, "The End of Coalition," pp. 89, 90.
265. Kevin M. Kruse, White Flight: Atlanta and the Making of Modern Conservativism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), pp. 50-77.
266. Frost, Interracial Movement of the Poor, p. 72.
267. Gerwin, "The End of Coalition," p. 111; interview with Winters, p. 3.
268. On Jefferson, see Porambo, No Cause for Indictment, p. 206.
269. Frost, Interracial Movement of the Poor, pp. 110, 114.
270. Porambo, No Cause for Indictment, pp. 206-7.
271. Douglass Eldridge, "Community Union Project Is Source of Controversy," Newark News (2-5-65).
272. Tom Hayden, Trial (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1970), pp. 150-58.
273. Newark: City in Transition, table 13;.
274. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America (New York: Harper and Row, 1966), p. 311.
275. On public sphere and urban democracy, see Robert A. Beauregard, "Democracy, Storytelling, and the Sustainable City," in Story and Sustainability: Planning, Practice, and Possibility for American Cities, ed. Barbara Eckstein and James A. Throgmorton (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003), pp. 65-77;.
276. The Black Public Sphere: A Public Culture Book, ed. The Black Public Sphere Collective (New York: University of Chicago Press, 1995).
277. David John Olson, "Racial Violence and City Politics: The Political Response to Civil Disorders in Three American Cities" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1971), p. 123.
278. Report for Action: New Jersey Governor's Commission on Civil Disorders (State of New Jersey, 1968), p. 35.
279. Report for Action, p. 10.
280. Virginia M. Esposito, ed., Conscience and Community: The Legacy of Paul Ylvisaker (New York: Peter Lang, 1999), p. 215.
281. E. S. Evans, "Ghetto Revolts and City Politics," in Louis H. Masotti and Don R. Bowen, eds., Riots and Rebellion: Civil Violence in the Urban Community (New York: Sage, 1968), pp. 398-402;.
282. Margaret J. Abudu Stark, "Some Empirical Patterns in a Riot Process," American Sociological Review 39, no. 6 (December 1974), pp. 872-73;.
283. Anita Monte and Gerald Leinwand, Riots (New York: Pocket, 1970);.
284. Peter Rossi, Ghetto Revolts (New York: Aldine, 1970);.
285. Edward Countryman, "Moral Economy, Political Economy and the American Bourgeois Revolution," in Adrian Randall and Andrew Charlesworth, eds., Moral Economy and Popular Protest: Crowds, Conflict, and Authority (London:Macmillan, 2000), pp. 158-60;.
286. E. P. Thompson, "The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century," reprinted in E. P. Thompson, Customs in Common (London: Merlin, 1991), pp. 185-258.
287. Monte and Leinwand, Riots, pp. 17, 23.
288. Timothy Bates, "Black Economic Well-Being since the 1950s," Review of Black Political Economy 12, no. 4 (Spring 1984), pp. 6-8.
289. On urbanization leading to nationalism, see Woodard, A Nation within A Nation, pp. 10-12;.
290. Newark: New Jersey: Population and Labor Force (New Jersey Department of Labor, 1967), p. 32.
291. Newark, New Jersey: Population and Labor Force, p. 28.
292. Report for Action, p. 66.
293. Newark, New Jersey: Population and Labor Force, p. 13.
294. Michael B. Katz, Mark J. Stern, and Jamie J. Fader, "The New African-American Inequality," Journal of American History 92, no. 1 (June 2005), p. 97.
295. Timothy Bates, "Black Economic Well-Being since the 1950s," Review of Black Political Economy 12, no. 4 (Spring 1984), p. 17.
296. Newark, New Jersey: Population and Labor Force, p. 7.
297. On postwar intersection of wealth and race, see Jacqueline Jones, "Southern Diaspora: Origins of the Northern Underclass," in The Underclass Debate: Views from History, ed. Michael Kates (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 27-54;.
298. Melvin L. Oliver and Thomas M. Shapiro, Black Wealth/White Wealth: A New Perspective on Racial Inequality (New York:Routledge, 1997);.
299. Dalton Conley, Being Black, Living in the Red: Race, Wealth, and Social Policy in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999);.
300. Timothy Bates, "Black Economic Well-Being since the 1950s," Review of Black Political Economy 12, no. 4 (Spring 1984), p. 17.
301. Report for Action, pp. 130-131.
302. Report for Action, p. 65.
303. For a sampling of the sociological analysis, including social service and education, see T. M. Tomlinson, "The Development of a Riot Ideology among Urban Negroes," American Behavioral Scientist 11, no. 4 (March-April 1968), pp. 20-28;.
304. N. S. Caplan and J. M. Paige, "A Study of Ghetto Rioters," Scientific American 219, no. 2 (August 1968), pp. 15-21;.
305. H. E. Ransford, "Isolation, Powerlessness, and Violence: A Study of Attitudes and Participation in the Watts Riot," American Journal of Sociology 73 (1968), pp. 581-91;.
306. Betty Edison, "White Public Opinion in an Age of Disorder," in David Boesel and Peter H. Rossi, eds., Cities under Siege: An Anatomy of the Ghetto Riots, 1964-1968 (New York: Basic Books, 1971), pp. 389-405.
307. Howard A. Palley, "Community Action, Public Programs, and Youth Unemployment: A Case Study of Newark, New Jersey," Journal of Negro Education 36, no. 2 (Spring 1967), p. 102.
308. Report for Action, p. 78.
309. Report for Action, p. 4.
310. Hayden, Reunion, p. 149.
311. Frost, Interracial Movement of the Poor, pp. 34, 37, 84.
312. Gerwin, "The End of Coalition," pp. 143, 166.
313. Hayden, Reunion, p. 145.
314. On Bessie Smith, see Hayden, Reunion, p. 147;.
315. Glassman quoted in Frost, An Interracial Movement of the Poor, pp. 129-30;.
316. on the structure of CAP, see Gerwin, "End of Coalition," pp. 165-70;.
317. Gov. Select Commission on Civil Disorder, Final Report and Summary (1968), p. 35;.
318. Hayden, "A View of the Poverty Program," p. 20.
319. Hochschild, Facing Up the American Dream, p. 139.
320. Quoted in Michael Belknap, ed., Civil Rights, the White House, and the Justice Department, 1945-1968 (New York: Garland, 1988), pp. 23-26;.
321. Olson, "Racial Violence and City Politics," p. 2;.
322. Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Evergreen, 1963), pp. 36-37, 88, 43, 93.
323. Stokely Carmichael, "Toward Black Liberation," Massachusetts Review 7 (Autumn 1966);.
324. Charles Hamilton, "Another Definition," New York Times Magazine, April 14, 1968.
325. John F. Hatchett, "The Moslem Influence among American Negroes," Journal of Human Relations 1, no. 4 (Summer 1962), pp. 375-81;.
326. James Holden et al. v. Board of Education of the City of Elizabeth, etc., New Jersey Supreme Court, A-62 (1-24-66), 216 A.2d. 387, Race Relations Law Reporter 11, no. 1 (Spring 1966), pp. 185-188.
327. Calvin C. Hernton, "White Liberals and Black Muslims," Negro Digest 12, no. 12 (October 1963), pp. 3-9;.
328. Quoted in Porambo, No Cause for Indictment, p. 99.
329. Report for Action, p. 14.
330. Report for Action, p. 16.
331. "Interview with Phil Hutchings," pp. 1-2.
332. Cohen and Taylor, American Pharaoh: Mayor Richard J. Daley, pp. 326-64.
333. Porambo, No Cause for Indictment, p. 45.
334. Porambo, No Cause For Indictment, pp. 42-43;.
335. Christopher Meeves, ed., The Lynching of Emmet Till: A Documentary Narrative (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2003), p. 258.
336. Report for Action, pp. 25-26.
337. Leroi Jones, Home: Social Essays (Hopewell, N.J.: Ecco, 1966, 1998), pp. 238-50;.
338. Hettie Jones, How I Became Hettie Jones (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1990), pp. 222-23.
339. "Investigation into Possible Criminal Conspiracy during Riots of July 1967" (1967), N.J. Gov. Hughes Comm., NJSA, pp. 34-36;.
340. Baraka, Raze, Raise, Race, Rays, pp. 59, 65;.
341. Stokely Carmichael (Kwame Ture), Ready for the Revolution: The Life and Struggles of Stokely Carmichael (New York: Scribner's, 2003), p. 537.
342. Harry J. Elam, Jr., Taking It to the Streets: The Social Protest Theater of Luis Valdez and Amiri Baraka (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1997), pp. 56-57, 130-31.
343. Robert Curvin, "The Persistent Minority: The Black Political Experience in Newark" (Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton University, 1975), p. 62.
344. Report for Action, pp. 138-39;.
345. U.S. National Advisory Report, p. 100.
346. "Investigation into Possible Criminal Conspiracy during Riots of July 1967," p. 66.
347. U.S. National Advisory Report, p. 206.
348. Quoted in James W. Button, Black Violence: Political Impact of the 1960s Riots (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), pp. 84-85.
349. Quoted in Porambo, No Cause for Indictment, p. 22.
350. "Testimony of Major General James F. Cantwell" (10-20-67), pp. 50, 68, 80, Box 5, N.J. Gov. Hughes Comm., NJSA.
351. "Testimony of Robert Curvin" (10-17-67), vol. 3, p. 17, Box 5, N.J. Gov. Hughes Comm., NJSA.
352. Donald L. Horowitz, The Deadly Ethnic Riot (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), pp. 76-77.
353. "Testimony of Robert Curvin," (10-17-67), vol. 3, pp. 7, 10, Box 5, N.J. Gov. Hughes Comm., NJSA.
354. Sidney Fine, Violence in the Model City, pp. 240-41.
355. "Testimony of Robert Curvin" (10-17-67), p.19, Box 5, N.J. Gov. Hughes Comm., NJSA.
356. "Testimony of Olivia Mc Rimmon" (11-28-67), p. 35, Box 5, N.J. Gov. Hughes Comm., NJSA.
357. "Testimony of Robert Curvin" (10-17-67), p. 29, Box 5, N.J. Gov. Hughes Comm., NJSA;.
358. "Investigation into Possible Criminal Conspiracy," pp. 68-69.
359. U.S. National Commission on Civil Disorders, p. 31.
360. "Testimony of Robert Curvin," p. 29, Box 5, N.J. Gov. Hughes Comm., NJSA.
361. U.S. National Advisory Commission, p. 33.
362. "Testimony of Robert Curvin," p. 30, Box 5, N.J. Gov. Hughes Comm., NJSA.
363. "Newark Degree and Type of Damage" (n.d.), Box 1, N.J. Gov. Hughes Comm., NJSA;.
364. also see Report for Action, pp. 124-26.
365. "Newark Degree and Type of Damage" (n.d.), Box 1, N.J. Gov. Hughes Comm., NJSA.
366. "Testimony of Donald Malafronte" (9-29-67), p. 45, Box 5, N.J. Gov. Hughes Comm., NJSA.
367. Porambo, No Cause for Indictment, pp. 115-16;.
368. Report for Action, pp. 110-11.
369. Report for Action, p. 144.
370. Caroline Brothers, War and Photography: A Cultural History (New York: Routledge, 1998), pp. 117, 135-38.
371. U.S. National Commission on Civil Disorders, pp. 72, 189-90.
372. Report for Action, p. 112.
373. Report for Action, p. 125.
374. Report for Action, p. 111.
375. Fine, Violence in the Model City, p. 249.
376. Report for Action, p. 111.
377. U.S. National Advisory Commission, p. 76.
378. Fine, Violence in the Model City, pp. 326-27.
379. Jeffrey Mayland Paige, "Collective Violence and the Culture of Subordination:A Study of Participants in the July 1967 Riots in Newark, New Jersey, and Detroit, Michigan" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1968).
380. Paige, "Collective Violence and the Culture of Subordination," pp. 41, 54.
381. Lerone Bennet, Jr., "How to Stop," Ebony 12, no. 12 (October 1969), pp. 29-31.
382. Report for Action, pp. 138-39.
383. Paul Boutelle, ed., The Black Uprisings: Newark 1967 Detroit (New York: Merit, 1969), pp. 8-9.
384. U.S. National Commission on Civil Disorders, pp. 33-35, 277, 489, 498.
385. Martha Derthick, The National Guard in Politics (Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press, 1965), pp. 18-19, 154-55;.
386. Jerry Cooper, The Rise of the National Guard: The Evolution of the American Militia, 1865-1920 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 1997), pp. 129-52;.
387. Eldridge Colby, The National Guard of the United States: A Half Century of Progress (New York: Ma/Ah Publishing, 1977), chapter 10;.
388. "Testimony of Colonel Kelly" (9-29-67), p. 32, Box 5, N.J. Gov. Hughes Comm., NJSA.
389. Porambo, No Cause for Indictment, pp. 252-53.
390. "Testimony of Colonel Kelly" (9-29-67), pp. 54-55, Box 5, N.J. Gov. Hughes Comm., NJSA.
391. "Testimony of Paul Ylvisaker" (8-16-67), Vol. 1, p. 14, N.J. Gov. Comm., PUF.
392. "Testimony," Vol. 3, pp. 19-20, N.J. Gov. Comm, PUF Princeton University Firestone.
393. Ann Kathleen Johnson, "Urban Ghetto Riots, 1965-1968: A Compari- son of Soviet and American Press Coverage" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Denver, 1994), pp. 213-14.
394. "Old-Fashioned Long, Hot Summer," Sepia 18, no. 9 (September 1969), pp. 78-80.
395. Douglas Eldridge, "A Betrayed City Ponders Storm: Signs of Impending Riots Cropping Up for Some Time," Newark Evening News.
396. The Johnson Presidential Press Conferences, vol. 2, p. 937.
397. Porambo, No Cause for Indictment, p. 240.
398. Glenn Freese, "The Riot Curfew," in Bassiouni, ed., The Law of Riot and Dissent, pp. 401, 411;.
399. Report for Action, p. 145.
400. "Testimony of Olivia McRimmon" (11-28-67), Box 5, N.J. Gov. Hughes Comm., NJSA.
401. On Jack Snydor, see Sidney Fine, Violence in the Model City: The Cavanagh Administration, Race Relations, and the Detroit Riot of 1967 (Ann Arbor:University of Michigan Press, 1989), p. 226.
402. Fine, Violence in the Model City, pp. 300-301.
403. "Testimony of Jamie Carter" (11-20-67), Box 5, p. 113, N.J. Gov. Hughes Comm., NJSA.
404. U.S. National Commission on Civil Disorders, p. 2.
405. Quoted in Porambo, No Cause for Indictment, pp. 27, 132, 149, 153.
406. Mary Louise Roberts, Civilization without Sexes: Gender and the Reconstruction of Postwar France (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994);.
407. Laura F. Edwards, "The Politics of Marriage and Households in North Carolina during Reconstruction," in Jane Dailey, Glenda Gilmore, and Bryant Simon, eds., Jumpin' Jim Crow: Southern Politics from Civil War to Civil Rights (Princeton:Princeton University Press, 2001), pp. 7-9;.
408. Gerald Horne, The Fire This Time:The Watts Riots and the 1960s (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992), pp. 160-69.
409. On Harris polls of Johnson, see Button, Black Violence, p. 33;.
410. "Memo:Governor Hughes Reports the Following" (7-17-67), in Part I, Civil Rights during the Johnson Administration, 1963-1969.
411. Report for Action, Governor's Select Commission on Civil Disorders (February 1968), pp. 138-39.
412. Porambo, No Cause for Indictment, pp. 20-21.
413. Robert Carr, Black Nationalism in the New World: Reading the African-American and West Indian Experience (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002), pp. 191, 202-4.
414. Quoted in Lewis M. Killian, The Impossible Revolution? Black Power and the American Dream (New York: Random House, 1968), pp. 116-117, 121.
415. U.S. National Advisory Committee, p. 129.
416. Susan D. Moeller, Shooting War: Photography and the American Experience of Combat (New York: Basic Books, 1989), p. 222;.
417. on gender and photography, see Judith Freyer Davidov, Women's Camera Work: Self/Body/Other in American Visual Culture (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1998), pp. 50-55.
418. On Bass, see Porambo, No Cause for Indictment, p. 127.
419. Russell Sackett, "In a Grim City, a Secret Meeting with the Snipers," Life, July 28, 1967, pp. 27-28.
420. Karen Huck, "The Arsenal on Fire: The Reader in the Riot, 1943," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 10 (193), pp. 42-43;.
421. Moeller, Shooting War, p. 222;.
422. Diana Emery Hulick with Joseph Marshall, Photography 1900 to the Present (New Jersey: Prentice Ha11, 1998), pp. 184-85;.
423. Christopher Pinnery and Nicolas Peterson, Photography's Other Histories (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003);.
424. Raymond P. Siljander, Applied Surveillance Photography (Springfield, IL: Thomas, 1975);.
425. Arthur Rothstein, Documentary Photography (Boston: Focal Press, 1986);.
426. on the power of signification of the image, see Roland Barthes, Image, Music, Text (New York: Hill and Wang, 1977), p. 45.
427. Hayden, Rebellion in Newark, p. 34.
428. Hannah Arendt, Crises of the Republic (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1972), p. 75;.
429. Cohen, Consumer's Republic, pp. 372-73;.
430. Philip Roth, American Pastoral (New York: Vintage, 1997), p. 266.
431. Porambo, No Cause for Indictment, pp. 159-60;.
432. Amiri Baraka, "Black People," in Amiri Baraka Reader, ed. Amiri Baraka and William J. Harris (New York: Thunder's Mouth, 1999), p. 224.
433. Quoted in Jerry Gafio Watts, Amiri Baraka: The Politics and Art of a Black Intellectual (New York: New York University Press, 2001), p. 298.
434. Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (New York:Modern Library, 1961, 1993);.
435. David Henkin, City Reading: Written Words and Public Spaces in Antebellum New York (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998);.
436. Vanessa Schwartz, Spectacular Realities: Mass Culture in Fin de Siècle Paris (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
437. Thomas Hayden, Rebellion in Newark: Official Violence (New York:New York Review of Books, 1967), p. 30.
438. Porambo, No Cause for Indictment, p. 213;.
439. "Testimony of Boo Son Wong" (11-13-67), p. 25, Box 5, N.J. Gov. Hughes Comm., NJSA.
440. George Thomas Kurian, Datapedia of the United States (Lamham, MD:Berman Press, 1994), p. 86.
441. Hayden, Rebellion in Newark, pp. 30-31, 61.
442. Joseph Boskin, Urban Racial Violence in the Twentieth Century (New York: Greenwood Press, 1969), pp. 164, 118;.
443. Bloom and Fletcher, The Negro in the Supermarket Industry, p. 118.
444. Dean Kotlowski, "Black Power-Nixon Style: The Nixon Administration and Minority Business Enterprise," Business History Review 72 (Autumn 1998), pp. 409-45.
445. Cohen, A Consumer's Republic, p. 378.
446. Richard W. Thomas, "The Black Community Building Process in Post-Urban Disorder Detroit, 1967-1997," in Joe W. Trotter, Earl Lewis, and Tera W. Hunter, eds., The African-American Urban Experience: Perspectives from the Colonial Period to the Present (New York: Palgrave, 2004), pp. 221-25.
447. Cynthia S'thembile, "Nation Builders: Female Activism in the Nation of Islam, 1960-1970" (Ph.D. dissertation, Temple University, 1994), pp. 192, 207, 196.
448. Audrey Olsen Faulkner, ed., When I Was Comin' Up: An Oral History of Aged Blacks (Hamden, CT: Archon, 1982), p. 76.
449. Ula Taylor, "Elijah Muhammad's Nation of Islam: Separatism, Re-gendering, and a Secular Approach to Black Power after Malcolm X (1965-1975)," in Jeanne F. Theoharis and Komozi Woodard, eds., Freedom North: Black Freedom Struggles Outside the South, 1940-1980 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), p. 188.
450. S'thembile, "Nation Builders," p. 124.
451. Le Roi Jones, Home: Social Essays (New York: William Morrow, 1966), pp. 230-31;.
452. E. Francis White, "Africa on My Mind: Gender, Counter Discourse, and African-American Nationalism," Journal of Women's History 2, no. 1 (Spring 1990), pp. 79, 91;.
453. on Malcolm X and gender, see Farah Jasmine Griffin, "'Ironies of the Saint': Malcolm X, Black Women, and the Price of Protection," in Bettye Collier-Thomas and V. P. Franklin, eds., Sisters in the Struggle:African-American Women in the Civil Rights-Black Power Movement (New York: New York University Press, 2002), pp. 214-29.
454. For the view that nationalists did not subordinate women, see James Edward Smethhurst, The Black Arts Movement: Literary Nationalism in the 1960s and 1970s (Chapel Hill:University of North Carolina Press, 2005), pp. 84-99.
455. "Interview with Amiri Baraka" (1970), General Collections, Schomburg Library, New York.
456. Black Women's Role in the Revolution (1970), pp. 6-8, General Collection, SCR.
457. Woodard, A Nation within A Nation, pp. 89, 182-84;.
458. Amiri Baraka, Raise, Race, Rays, Raze: Essays since 1965 (New York:Random House, 1971), p. 160.
459. Theodore Hudson, "A Conversation between Imanu Amiri Baraka and Theodore R. Hudson," in Conversations with Amiri Baraka, pp. 75-76;.
460. also see 1980 interview with William Harris, in Conversations with Amiri Baraka, pp. 170-75.
461. Baraka, Raise, Race, Rays, Raze, pp. 160-61.
462. An older reflection on this moment is Theodore White, The Making of the President, 1968 (New York: Atheneum, 1969), pp. 202-30.
463. For example, see Nathan Wright, Black Power and Urban Unrest (New York: Hawthorn, 1967), pp. 135-55.
464. Norman Naimark, Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001);.
465. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (New York: Verso, 1991);.
466. Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983), pp. 7, 48, 92, 111;.
467. Paul Gilroy, Against Race: Imagining Political Culture beyond the Color Line (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000), pp. 122, 124.
468. Jürgen Habermas, "Struggles for Recognition in the Democratic Constitutional State," in Charles Taylor and Amy Gutman, eds., Multiculturalism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), pp. 118-19.
469. See Gary Wills, The Second Civil War: Arming for Armageddon (New York: New American Library, 1968), pp. 83-84.
470. "Escalation for A Long Hot Summer," Sepia 17, no. 3 (March 1968), pp. 60-64.
471. David John Olson, "Racial Violence and City Politics," p. 141.
472. Gerald Horne, The Fire Next Time: The Watts Uprising and the 1960s (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1995), p. 139. Horne writes of the right influence: "By some estimates 2000 members in the department alone.".
473. Benjamin R. Epstein, The Radical Right: Report on the John Birch Society and Its Allies (New York: Random House, 1966, 1967), pp. 198, 202.
474. On the racial component of anticommunism, see Gerald Schomp, Birchism Was My Business (New York: Macmillan, 1970), pp. 168-69.
475. Porambo, No Cause for Indictment, p.135.
476. Peter L. Meyers, "Between the Lines and behind the Times: The Marginal Identities of Newark Whites," in Stanley Winters, From Riot to Recovery, p. 139.
477. Peter Myers, "Defining the White Population," in Winters, ed., From Riot to Recovery, pp. 135, 140.
478. Geoffrey Douglass, New Jersey Monthly, December 1976, pp. 32-37;.
479. FBI File, "Anthony Michael Imperiale," p. 3 (n.d.).
480. On Jewish and Italian American attitudes on education, for example, see Stephen Steinberg, The Ethnic Myth: Race, Ethnicity, and Class in America (New York: Atheneum, 1981), pp. 128-50;.
481. Michael Novak, Unmeltable Ethnics:Politics and Culture in American Life (New Brunswick: Transaction, 1996, 1972), pp. 232-76.
482. David Shipler, "The White Niggers of Newark: The Other Side of Prejudice," Harpers, August 1972, p. 83;.
483. Pete Hamill, "The Revolt of the White Lower-Middle Class," in Winters, ed., From Riot to Recovery, p. 19.
484. "Interview with Amiri Baraka" (1970), General Collections, Schomburg Library, New York; Myers, "Defining the White Population," in Winters, ed., From Riot to Recovery, pp. 142-44.
485. Geoffrey Douglass, New Jersey Monthly, December 1976, pp. 32-37;.
486. FBI File, "Anthony Michael Imperiale," p. 3 (n.d.);.
487. Stephen A. Buff, "Greasers, Supers, and Hippies: Three Responses to the Adult World," in Winters, ed., From Riot to Recovery, pp. 142-44;.
488. Herber Gans, Urban Villagers (New York: 1971).
489. Nathan Glazer and Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Beyond the Melting Pot:Blacks, Jews, Italians, and Puerto Ricans in New York City (Cambridge, MA:MIT Press, 1970), pp. 138-39;.
490. on post-riot assimilation, see Stephen Steinberg, The Ethnic Myth: Race, Ethnicity, and Class in America (Boston: Beacon, 2001), p. 256.
491. Porambo, No Cause for Indictment, p. 175.
492. Woodard, A Nation within a Nation, pp. 84-85.
493. Lavern C. Hutchins, The John Birch Society and United States Foreign Policy (New York: Pageant Press, 1968), pp. 97-162; Newark News (5-17-68).
494. Benjamin Epstein, The Radical Right: Report on the John Birch Society and Its Allies (New York: Random House, 1967), pp. 178-79.
495. Anthony Giuliano, Patrolmen's Benevolent Assoc., Local No. 3, 22 Franklin Avenue (n.d.), Box 3, N.J. Gov. Hughes Comm., NJSA.
496. Porambo, No Cause for Indictment, p. 90.
497. Porambo, No Cause for Indictment, p. 203.
498. David John Olson, "Racial Violence and City Politics," p. 141.
499. Dawson, Black Visions, pp. 132-33.
500. Nixon later wrote to President Eisenhower to report the warm reception given to his law-and-order rhetoric. See Stephen Ambrose, Nixon: The Triumph of a Politician, 1962-1972 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989), pp. 144-45;.
501. Matthew Lassiter, "Suburban Strategies: The Volatile Center in Postwar American Politics," in Meg Jacobs, William J. Novak, Julian Zelizer, eds., The Democratic Experiment: New Directions in American Political History (Princeton:Princeton University Press, 2003), pp. 330-31;.
502. Congress and the Nation, vol. 2, (1965-68) (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly), p. 28;.
503. Congressional Quarterly Almanac, vol. 24 (1968), pp. 945-46.
504. See Tom Wicker, One of US: Richard Nixon and the American Dream (New York: Random House, 1991), pp. 360-62.
505. On ignoring Nixon's manipulation of race, see Gary Wills, Nixon Agonistes: The Crisis of a Self-Made Man (New York: Signet, 1969);.
506. Joan Hoff, Nixon Reconsidered (New York: Basic, 1994);.
507. Anthony Summers, The Arrogance of Power: The Secret World of Richard Nixon, (New York: Viking, 2000);.
508. Dan Carter, From George Wallace to Newt Gingrich: Race in the Conservative Counterrevolution, 1963-1994 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1996), pp. 13, 330-32, 435. In 1968 Wallace failed to win anything outside the South; in 1972 Wallace finished second in Wisconsin, after the Milwaukee riots, and first in Michigan, after the Detroit riots.
509. "Summer Riots," Sepia 16, no. 8 (August 1967), pp. 22-26;.
510. "Riots, Riots, Riots," Sepia 16, no. 10 (October 1963), pp. 38-43.
511. Alvin Poussaint, "A Psychiatrist Looks at Black Power," Ebony, March 1969, p. 151.
512. Thomas J. Joynes, "Negro Identity-Black Power and Violence," Journal of Human Relations 17, no. 2 (Second Quarter, 1969), pp. 204, 206.
513. Stokely Carmichael and Charles V. Hamilton, Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America (New York: Random House, 1967), pp. 54-55.
514. Charles V. Hamilton, "No Truce with Oppressors: Black Americans and the American Political Struggle," Black World, May 1970, pp. 5-9.
515. Baraka, Raise, Race, Rays, Raze, p. 65.
516. Carmichael and Hamilton, Black Power, p. 84.
517. Woodard, A Nation within a Nation, pp. 146-47.
518. Mendelberg, The Race Card, pp. 211-14;.
519. Biographical studies of black mayors appeared just at the end of the riots, from 1967 to 1970. In Cleveland, a white labor candidate opposed a black civil rights candidate, Carl Stokes; see Kenneth Weinberg, Black Victory: Carl Stokes and the Winning of Cleveland (Chicago: Quadrangle, 1968), pp. 128-39.
520. On Coleman Young, see Wilbur Rich, Coleman Young (New York: 1971), pp. 186-87;.
521. "Introduction," in Colburn and Adler, eds., African American Mayors, p. 1.
522. David R. Colburn and Jeffrey S. Adler, eds., African-American Mayors:Race, Politics, and the American City (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2001), p. 7;.
523. Colburn, "African-American Mayors, 1967-96," in Colburn and Adler, African American Mayors, p. 39;.
524. Kenneth Gibson, "Newark and We," in Nathan Wright, ed., What Black Politicians Are Saying (New York: Hawthorn, 1972), pp. 110-11.
525. Leonard Cole, Blacks in Power: A Comparative Study of Black and White Elected Officials (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976), pp. 78-79;.
526. see Jeffrey Hadden, Louis Masotti, and Victor Thiessen, "The Making of the Negro Mayors," in The Black Experience, ed. August Meier, p. 149;.
527. Robert Curvin, "The Persistent Minority," pp. 94, 103, 117.
528. Curvin, "The Persistent Minority," pp. 216-18;.
529. Cole, Blacks in Power, pp. 76, 101.
530. Curvin, "The Persistent Minority," p. 65.
531. Quoted in Ronald Walters and Robert C. Smith, African-American Leadership (Buffalo: SUNY Press, 1999), p. 160.
532. Yatrakis, "Electoral Demands," pp. 258, 267.
533. Horace M. Kallen, Cultural Pluralism and the American Idea: An Essay in Social Philosophy (New York: 1954), p. 83.
534. On cultural pluralism in the context of urban politics, see Jerold Podair, The Strike That Changed New York:Blacks, Whites, and the Ocean Hill-Brownsville Crisis (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), pp. 58-60, 66-67.
535. "Le Roi Jones: An Exclusive Interview," in Conversations with Amiri Baraka, pp. 77-80.
536. Don Quinn Kelley, "Black Political Activity and the Formation of Public Policy on Education of Blacks in the United States-Two Eras: The State of Alabama from 1884 to 1910 and the City of Newark, New Jersey, from 1954 to June, 1972" (Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1974), p. 344.
537. Kelley, "Black Political Activity and the Formation of Public Policy," pp. 340-44.
538. Kelley, "Black Political Activity and the Formation of Public Policy on Education of Blacks in the United States-Two Eras," pp. 340-45.
539. David R. Colburn, "Running for Office: African-American Mayors from 1967 to 1996," in David R. Colburn and Jeffrey S. Adler, eds., African-American Mayors (New York: 2003), p. 33;.
540. Kathryn Yatrakis, "Electoral Demands and Political Benefits" (Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1981), pp. 258, 267.
541. Wilbur Rich, Black Mayors and School Politics: The Failure of Reform in Detroit, Gary, and Milwaukee (New York: Garland, 1996), p. 192;.
542. John Charles Boger and Judith Wetch Wegner, eds., Race, Poverty, and American Cities (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), p. 14.
543. Winters, From Riot to Recovery, p. 3.
544. Roger Biles, "Black Mayors: A Historical Assessment," Journal of Negro History, 77, no. 3 (summer 1992), pp. 117-18, 121.
545. Winters, From Riot to Recovery, p. 3.
546. Yatrakis, "Political Benefits," p. 164.
547. Curvin, "The Persistent Minority," p. 326.
548. See Harry L. Margulis, "Public Housing in Newark: The Struggle to Survive,".
549. William L. Johnston, "The New Jersey Housing Finance Agency: A Decade of Housing Production in Newark," in Winters, From Riot to Recovery, pp. 227-46, 247-53.
550. Franklin J. James, Jr., Race, Housing Value and Housing Abandonment:A Case Study of Newark (New York: Columbia University Press, 1980), pp. 5-10.
551. James B. Lane, "Richard Hatcher of Gary, Indiana," in Colbern and Adler, eds., African-American Mayors, p. 69.
552. Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p. 21.
553. Kenneth Kusmer, Down and Out, on the Road: The Homeless in American History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002);.
554. "New State Program Makes Strides in Curbing Homelessness," Star-Ledger (n.d.).