Gender myths v. working realities: Using social science to reformulate sexual harassment law

Gender Myths v. Working Realities: Using Social Science to Reformulate Sexual Harassment Law

Volumn , Issue , 2005, Pages 1-261

  Beiner, Theresa M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ARKANSAS AT LITTLE ROCK   (United States)

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EID: 84900293749     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Book

References (584)

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83. David E. Terpstra & Douglas D. Baker, A Hierarchy of Sexual Harassment, 121 J. Psychology 599, 604 (1987)
84. James M. Wilkerson, The Impact of Job Level andPrior Training on Sexual Harassment Labeling and Remedy Choice, 29 J. Applied Soc. Psychol. 1605, 1605-6 (1999).
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103. James E. Gruber et al., Sexual Harassment Types and Severity: Linking Researchand Policy, in Sexual Harassment in the Workplace: Perspectives, Frontiers, and Response Strategies at 151, 153-54 (Margaret S. Stockdale ed., 1996).
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122. Meritor, 477 U.S. at 64. 5. 510 U.S. 17, 21 (1993)
123. Meritor, 477 U.S. at 65, 67.
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129. Harris, 510 U.S. at 21.
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135. Oncale, 523 U.S. at 80.
136. Clark County Sch. Dist. v. Breeden, 532 U.S. 268, 269 (2001).
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138. Faragher, 524 U.S. at 788.
139. Beiner, Supra note 3, at 126-30.
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142. Harris v Forklift Sys., Inc., 510 U.S. 17, 21 (1993).
143. Schultz, Supra note 15.
144. D. Md. May 17, 1996, aff'd, 113 F.3d 1232 (4th Cir. 1997).
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149. Bowman v. Shawnee State Univ., 220 F.3d 456, 463-65.
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151. cert. denied, 528 U.S. 988 (1999).
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158. Conner v. Schrader-Bridgeport Int'l, Inc., 227 F.3d 179, 193-94 (4th Cir. 2000).
159. Saxton v. AT&T Co., 10 F.3d 526, 529 (7th Cir. 1993).
160. Champion, 1995 WL 488333, at *10
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162. Rocha Vigil v. City of Las Cruces, 113 F.3d 1247 (10th Cir. 1997)
163. 1997 WL 265095, reh'g denied, 119 F.3d 871 (10th Cir. 1997).
164. Hicks v. Gates Rubber Co., 833 F.2d 1025 (10th Cir. 1987)
165. Jefferies v. Harris County Cmty. Action Ass'n, 615 F.2d 1025 (5th Cir. 1980).
166. Donna M. Matthews, A Lawof Her Own: The Reasonable Woman as a Measure of Man 92-93 (2000).
167. Tam B. Tran, Title VII Hostile Work Environment: A Different Perspective, 9 J. Contemp. Legal Issues 357, 373-76 (1998).
168. Zelinskii v. Pennsylvania State Police, 282 F. SUPP. 2d 251 (M.D. Pa. 2003)
169. Hosey v. McDonald's Corp., No. AW-95-196, 1996 WL 414057 (D. Md. May 17, 1996)
170. Cooke v. Stefani Mgmt. Servs., Inc., 250 F.3d 564, 568 (7th Cir. 2001)
171. Butta-Brinkman v. FCA Int'l, Ltd., 950 F. SUPP. 230, 233 (N.D. Ill. 1996).
172. 81 F.3d 48, 49 (6th Cir. 1996).
173. 2001 WL 345793, at *1 (6th Cir. 2001).
174. For cases suggesting that Rabidue v. Osceola RefineryCo., Division of Texas-American Petrochemicals, Inc., 805 F.2d 611 (6th Cir. 1986)
175. cert. denied, 481 U.S. 1041 (1987)
176. Scheske v. Kirsch Division ofCooper Industries, Inc., 30 F.3d 134 (tbl.), 1994 WL 276892 (6th Cir. 1996)
177. Bartholomew v. Delahaye Group, Inc., 1995 WL 907797, at *4 (D.N.H. 1995).
178. Carlisle v. Ohio Dep't of Rehabilitation and Correction, 2002 WL 1583272 at *4-*5 (S.D. Ohio 2002)
179. Gwen, 2001 WL 345793 at *3
180. Blankenship v. Parke Care Centers, Inc., 123 F.3d 868, 872 (6th Cir. 1997).
181. Steven Hetcher, Non-Utilitarian Negligence Norms and the ReasonableWoman Standard, 54 Vand. L. Rev. 863, 864 (2001).
182. Christopher M. Alexander, Crushing Equality: Gender Equal Sentencing in America, 6 Am. U.J. Gender & L. 199, n.181 (1997)
183. Amy E. Black & Stanley Rothman, Shall We Kill All the Lawyers First?: Insider and Outsider Views of the Legal Profession, 21 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 835, 839, 842 n.14 (1998).
184. Sheldon Goldman et al., W. Bush Remaking theJudiciary: Like Father Like Son?, 86 Judicature 282, 309 tbl. 2, tbl. 4 (2003).
185. Louise F. Fitzgerald et al., The Incidence and Dimensions of Sexual Harassmentin Academia and the Workplace, 32 J. Vocational Behav. 152, 171 (1988)
186. Patricia M. Hanrahan, "How Do I Know if I'm Being Harassed or if This Is Part of MyJob?" Nurses and Definitions of Sexual Harasment, Nat'l Women's Stud. Ass'n J. 43 (Summer 1997).
187. Richard D. Arvey & Marcie A. Cavanaugh, Using Surveys to Assess the Prevalenceof Sexual Harassment: Some Methodological Problems, 51 J. Soc. Issues 39, 43 (Spring 1995).
188. Barbara A. Gutek et al., The Utility of the Reasonable Woman Legal Standard inHostile Environment Sexual Harassment Cases: A Multimethod, Multistudy Examination, 5 Psychol. Pub. Pol'y & L. 596, 604-5 (1999).
189. Barbara K. Burian et al., Group Gender Composition Effectson Judgments of Sexual Harassment, 22 Psychol.Women Q. 465, 467 (1998) .
190. James E. Gruber & Michael D. Smith, Women's Responses to SexualHarassment: A Mutivariate Analysis, 17 Basic & Applied Psychol. 543, 549 (1995)
191. Gutek et al., Supra note 59, at 607.
192. Louise F. Fitzgerald et al., But Was It Really Sexual Harassment? Legal, Behavioral, and Psychological Definitions of Workplace Victimization of Women, in SexualHarassment: Theory, Research and Treatment 5, 15-18 (William O'Donohue ed., 1997).
193. Dara A. Charney & Ruth C. Russell, An Overview of Sexual Harassment, 151 Am. J. Psychiatry 10, 11 (1994)
194. Terri C. Fain & Douglas L. Anderton, Sexual Harassment: Organizational Context and Diffuse Status, 5/6 Sex Roles 291, 301-3 (1987)
195. Fitzgerald et al., Supra note 62, at 18-19
196. Carol A. Ford & Francisco J. Donis, The Relationship Between Age and Gender inWorkers' Attitudes Toward Sexual Harassment, 130 J. Psychology 627 (1996)
197. Patti A. Giuffre & Christine L. Williams, Boundary Lines: Labeling SexualHarassment in Restaurants, 8 Gender & Soc'y 378, 384, 387-92 (1994)
198. Mary A. Gowan & Raymond A. Zimmerman, Impact of Ethnicity, Gender, and Previous Experience on Juror Judgments in Sexual Harassment Cases, 26 J. AppliedSoc. Psychol. 596, 610 (1996)
199. James E. Gruber & Lars Bjorn, Women's Responses to Sexual Harassment: An Analysis of Sociocultural, Organiza-tional, and Personal Resource Models, 67 Soc. Sci. Q. 814, 815
200. Inger W. Jensen & Barbara A. Gutek, Attributions and Assignment ofResponsibility in Sexual Harassment, 38 J. Soc. Issues, Winter 1982, at 121, 126
201. Tricia S. Jones et al., Effects of EmploymentRelationship, Response of Recipient and Sex of Rater on Perceptions of Sexual Harassment, 65 Perception and Motor Skills 55, 56, 59 (1987)
202. Michael A. Plater & Robert E. Thomas, The Impact ofJob Performance, Gender, and Ethnicity on the Managerial Review of Sexual HarassmentAllegations, 28 J. Applied Soc. Psychol. 52, 64-67 (1998)
203. Gary N. Powell, Effects of Sex Role Identity and Sex on Definitions of Sexual Harassment, 14 Sex Roles 9 (1986)
204. John B. Pryor, A Lay Person's Understanding ofSexual Harassment, 13 Sex Roles 273, 276 (1985)
205. Richard C. Sorenson et al., Solving the Chronic Problem of Sexual Harassmentin the Workplace: An Empirical Study of Factors Affecting Employee Perceptionsand Consequences of Sexual Harassment, 34 Cal. W. L. Rev. 457, 490 (1998)
206. Daniel A. Thomann & Richard L. Wiener, Physical and PsychologicalCausality as Determinants of Culpability in Sexual Harassment Cases, 17 Sex Roles 573, 575 (1987)
207. Gail E. Wyatt & Monika Riederle, The Prevalence and Context of Sexual Harassment Among African American and WhiteWomen, 10 J. Interpersonal Violence 309, 310-17 (1995)
208. Jann H. Adams, Sexual Harassment and Black Women: A Historical Perspective, in Sexual Harassment: Theory, Research and Treatment at 213 (William O'Donohue ed., 1997).
209. Fitzgerald et al., Supra note 62, at 9.
210. James E. Gruber, A Typology of Personal and Environmental Sexual Harassment: Research and Policy Implications for the 1990s, 26 Sex Roles 447, 451 tbl. III (1992).
211. Fitzgerald et al., Supra note 62, at 11, 12 tbl. 2-2, 13
212. Craig R. Waldo et al., Are Men Sexually Harassed? If So, By Whom?, 22 Law & Hum. Behav. 59, 60 (1998).
213. Jasmine Tata, The Structure and Phenomenon of Sexual Harassment: Impact ofCategory of Sexually Harassing Behavior, Gender, and Hierarchical Level, 23 J. AppliedSoc. Psychol. 199, 200-201 (1993)
214. F.J. Till, Sexual Harassment: A Reporton the Sexual Harassment of Students (National Advisory Council on Women's Educational Programs) (1980).
215. United States Merit Sys. Prot. Bd., Sexual Harassment in the FederalWorkplace: Trends, Progress, Continuing Challenges 5 (1995).
216. Margaret S. Stockdale & Kathryn G. Hope, Confirmatory Factor Analysis ofU.S. Merit System Protection Board's Survey of Sexual Harassment: The Fit of theThree-Factor Model, 51 J. Vocational Behav. Spring (1997), at 338, 345, 352.
217. Douglas D. Baker et al., The Influence of Individual Characteristics andSeverity of Harassing Behavior on Reactions to Sexual Harassment, 22 Sex Roles 305, 313 tbl. I (1990)
218. Bonnie S. Dansky et al., Sexual Harassment: I Can't Define It but I Know It When I See It, at tbl. 1 (1992)
219. Alison M. Konrad & Barbara A. Gutek, Impact of Work Experiences on Attitudes Toward Sexual Harassment, 31 Admin. Sci. Q. 422, 429 tbl.1 (1986)
220. Douglas D. Baker, A Hierarchy of Sexual Harassment, 121 J. Psychology 599, 602 (1987)
221. Alayne J. Ormerod, Breaking the Silence: The Sexual Harassment of Women in Academia and the Workplace, in Psychology of Women 553, 559-60 FlorenceL. Denmark & Michele A. Paludi eds., 1993.
222. Mia Cahill, The Social Construction of Sexual Harassment Law 58 (2001)
223. Baker et al., Supra note 71, at 313 tbl. I
224. Dansky et al., Supra note 71, at tbl. 1
225. USMSPB, Supra note 68, at 2, 7 & tbl. 1.
226. Gruber, Supra note 65.
227. Terpstra & Baker, Supra note 71, at 602 & tbl. 1.
228. Masoud Hemmasi et al., Gender-Related Jokes in the Workplace: Sexual Humoror Sexual Harassment? 24 J. Applied Soc. Psychol. 1114, 1122 (1994).
229. Denise Haunani Solomon & Mary Lynn Miller Williams, Perceptions of Social-Sexual Communications at Work: The Effects of Message, Situation, and ObserverCharacteristics on Judgments of Sexual Harassment, 25 J. Applied Commun. Res. 196, 205 (1997).
230. USMSPB, Supra note 68, at VII, 7 & tbl. 1
231. Studies involving frequency, intensity, and duration, see Fitzgerald et al., supranote 62, at 11
232. James E. Gruber et al., Sexual Harassment Types and Severity: Linking Research and Policy, in Sexual Harassment in the Workplace: Perspectives, Frontiers, and Response Strategies 151, 164 (Margaret S. Stockdale ed., 1996)
233. Thomann & Wiener, Supra note 63, at 585.
234. Thomann & Wiener, Supra note 63, at 585.
235. Jennifer L. Hurt et al., Situational and Individual Influences on Judgments inHostile Environment Sexual Harassment, 7 J. Applied Soc. Psychol. 1395, 1396-1400, 1403, 1406 (1999).
236. Thomann & Wiener, Supra note 63, at 585
237. Dansky et al., Supra note 71, at tbl. 3.
238. Jane L. Dolkart, Hostile Environment Harassment: Equality, Objectivity, and theShaping of Legal Standards, 43 Emory L.J. 151, 198-223 (1994).
239. Eileen M. Blackwood, The ReasonableWoman in Sexual Harassment Law and the Case for Subjectivity, 16 Vt. L. Rev. 1005, 1026 (1992).
240. Margaret S. Stockdale et al., The Relationship between Prior Sexual Abuseand Reactions to Sexual Harassment, 8 Psychol. Pub. Pol'y & L. 64, 88 (2002).
241. Concrete Pipe and Prods. of Cal., Inc., v. Constr. Laborers Pension Trust for S. Cal., 508 U.S. 602, 622 (1993)
242. Charles B. Mueller & Laird C. Kirkpatrick, 1 Federal Evidence §65, at 319 (2d ed. 1994)
243. John W. Strong, 2 McCormick on Evidence §339, at 438 (4th ed. 1992).
244. Lipsett v. Univ. of Puerto Rico, 740 F. SUPP. 921, 925 (D.P.R. 199)
245. Donna Shestowsky, Note, Where Is the CommonKnowledge? Empirical Support for Requiring Expert Testimony in Sexual HarassmentTrials, 51 Stan. L. Rev. 357, 358-59 (1999).
246. Dolkart, Supra note 85, at 210-16.
247. Vicki Schultz, The Sanitized Workplace, 112 Yale L.J. 2061 (2003).
248. Ann Juliano & Stewart J. Schwab, The Sweep of Sexual Harassment Cases, 86 Cornell L. Rev. 548, 567 tbl. 1 (2001)..
249. Dolkart, Supra note 85, at 210.
250. Meritor, 477 U.S. at 67.
251. Azy Barak, Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Sexual Harassment, in Sexual Harassment: Theory, Research, and Treatment 263, 280 (William O'Donohue ed., 1997)
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253. John B. Pryor, The Lay Person'sUnderstanding of Sexual Harassment, 13 Sex Roles 273, 276 (1985)
254. Daniel A. Thomann & Richard L. Wiener, Physical and Psychological Causality as Determinants ofCulpability in Sexual Harassment Cases, 17 Sex Roles 573, 574 (1987).
255. Barbara A. Gutek et al., The Utility of the Reasonable Woman Legal Standardin Hostile Environment Sexual Harassment Cases: A Multimethod, Multistudy Examination, 5 Psychol. Pub. Pol'y & L. 596, 607 (1999).
256. Carol L. Baird et al., Gender Influence on Perceptions of Hostile EnvironmentSexual Harassment, 77 Psychol. Rep. 79, 82 (1995)
257. Sharon J. Bittner, Note, The Reasonable Woman Standard after Harris v. Forklift Systems, Inc.: The DebateRages On, 16 Women's Rts. L. Rep. 127 (1994).
258. Caroline A. Forell & Donna M. Matthews, A Law of Her Own: The Reasonable Woman as a Measureof Man 23-119 (2000).
259. Mary A. Gowan & Raymond A. Zimmerman, Impact of Ethnicity, Gender, and Previous Experience on Juror Judgments in Sexual Harassment Cases, 26 J. AppliedSoc. Psychol. 596, 608 (1996)
260. Michael A. Plater & Robert E. Thomas, The Impact of Job Performance, Gender, and Ethnicity onthe Managerial Review of Sexual Harassment Allegations, 28 J. Applied Soc. Psychol. 52, 64-65 (1998)
261. Jasmine Tata, The Structure and Phenomenon of SexualHarassment: Impact of Category of Sexually Harassing Behavior, Gender, and HierarchicalLevel, 23 J. Applied Soc. Psychol. 199, 207 (1993).
262. Andrews v. City of Philadelphia, 895 F.2d 1469, 1482 (3d Cir. 1990)
263. Yates v. Avco, Corp., 819 F.2d 630, 637 (6th Cir. 1987).
264. Ellison v. Brady, 924 F.2d 872, 878 (9th Cir. 1991).
265. Elizabeth L. Shoenfelt et al., Reasonable Person versus Reasonable Woman: Does It Matter?, 10 Am. U. J. Gender Soc. Pol'y & L. 633, 637-38 (2002)
266. Muzzy v. Cahillane Motors, Inc., 434 Mass. 409, 413 n.3 (2001).
267. Charles R. Calleros, Title VII and the First Amendment: Content-Neu-tral Regulation, Disparate Impact, and the "Reasonable Person," 58 Ohio St. L.J. 1217, 1258-59 (1997)
268. George Rutherglen, Sexual Harassment: Ideology or Law?, 18 Harv. J. L. & Pub. Pol'y 487, 496 (1995).
269. Gillming v. Simmons Indus., 91 F.3d 1168, 1172 (8th Cir. 1996).
270. Burns v. McGregor Elec. Indus., Inc., 989 F.2d 959, 965 (8th Cir. 1993).
271. Harris v. Forklift Sys., Inc., 510 U.S. 17, 21 (1993).
272. Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Servs., Inc., 523 U.S. 75, 81 (1998).
273. Virgil L. Sheets & Sanford L. Braver, Organizational Status and Perceived SexualHarassment: Detecting the Mediators of a Null Effect, 25 Personality and Soc. Psychol. Bull. 1159, 1160 (1999) (citations omitted).
274. Patricia A. Frazier et al., Social Science Research on Lay Definitions of SexualHarassment, 51 J. Soc. Issues, Spring 1995, at 21, 23
275. Douglas D. Baker et al., The Influence of Individual Characteristics and Severity of HarassingBehavior on Reactions to Sexual Harassment, 22 Sex Roles 305, 311-13 (1990)
276. Diana Burgess & Eugene Borgida, Sexual Harassment: AnExperimental Test of Sex-Role Spillover Theory, 23 Personality Soc. Psychol. Bull. 63, 70-71 (1997)
277. Christopher W. Williams et al., An Attributional (Causal Dimensional) Analysis of Perceptions of Sexual Harassment, 25 J. Applied Soc. Psychol. 1169, 1174 (1995).
278. U.S. Merit Sys. Prot. Bd., Sexual Harassment in the Federal Workplace: Trends, Progress, Continuing Challenges 7, tbl. 1 (1995) [hereinafter USMSPB].
279. James D. Johnson et al., PerceptualAmbiguity, Gender and Target Intoxication: Assessing the Effects of Factors that ModeratePerceptions of Sexual Harassment, 27 J. Applied Soc. Psychol. 1209, 1212, 1215 (1997).
280. Barbara A. Gutek & Maureen O'Connor, The Empirical Basis for the ReasonableWoman Standard, 51 J. Soc. Issues, Spring 1995, at 151, 156.
281. Richard L. Wiener & Linda E. Hurt, Social Sexual Conduct at Work: How Do Workers KnowWhen It Is Harassment and When It Is Not?, 34 Cal.W. L. Rev. 53 (1997).
282. Barbara K. Burian et al., GroupGender Composition Effects on Judgments of Sexual Harassment, 22 Psychol.WomenQ. 465, 474 (1998).
283. Jeremy Blumenthal, The Reasonable Woman Standard: A Meta-Analytic Reviewof Gender Differences in Perceptions of Sexual Harassment, 22 Law & Hum. Behav. 33, 43 (1998).
284. Maria Rotundo et al., A Meta-Analytic Review of Gender Differences in Perceptionsof Sexual Harassment, 86 J. Applied Psychol. 914, 918, 919 (2001).
285. Denise Haunani Solomon & Mary Lynn Miller Williams, Perceptions of Social-Sexual Communications at Work: The Effects of Message, Situation, and ObserverCharacteristics on Judgments of Sexual Harassment, 25 J. Applied Commun. Res. 196, 205 (1997).
286. Jeanne Henry & Julian Meltzoff, Perceptions of Sexual Harassment as a Functionof Target's Response Type and Observer's Sex, 39 Sex Roles 253, 265 (1998).
287. James E. Gruber et al., Sexual Harassment Types and Severity: Linking Researchand Policy, in Sexual Harassment in the Workplace: Perspectives, Frontiers, and Response Strategies 170 (Margaret S. Stockdale ed., 1996)
288. Louise F. Fitzgerald et al., Why Didn't She Just Report Him? The Psychologicaland Legal Implications of Women's Responses to Sexual Harassment, 51 J. Soc. Issues, Spring 1995, at 117, 125.
289. David Shultz, From Reasonable Man to Unreasonable Victim?: AssessingHarris Forklift Systems and Shifting Standards of Proof and Perspective in Title VIISexual Harassment Law, 27 Suffolk U. L. Rev. 717, 734-35 (1993)
290. Toni Lester, The Reasonable Woman Test in Sexual HarassmentLaw-Will It Really Make a Difference?, 26 Ind. L. Rev. 227, 247-60 (1993).
291. Eileen M. Blackwood, The Reasonable Woman in Sexual Harassment Law and the Casefor Subjectivity, 16 Vt. L. Rev. 1005, 1021 (1992).
292. John B. Pryor & Jeanne D. Day, Interpretations of Sexual Harassment: An Attributional Analysis, 18 Sex Roles 405 (1988).
293. Richard L. Wiener et al., Social Analytic Investigation of Hostile Work Environments: A Test of the Reasonable Woman Standard, 19 Law & Hum. Behavior 263, 276 (1995)
294. Richard L. Wiener et al., Perceptionsof Sexual Harassment: The Effects of Gender, Legal Standard, and AmbivalentSexism, 21 Law & Hum. Behavior 71 (1997) [hereinafter Wiener et al., Effects].
295. Ann Juliano & Stewart J. Schwab, The Sweep of Sexual Harassment Cases, 86 Cornell L. Rev. 548, 584 (2001).
296. Stephanie M. Wildman, Book Review, Ending Male Privilege: Beyond theReasonable Woman, 98 Mich. L. Rev. 1797, 1809-10 (2000).
297. Radtke v. Everett, 501 N.W. 2d 167 (Mich. 1993)
298. Zanita E. Fenton, Caroline A. Forrell & Donna M. Matthews, A Law of HerOwn: The Reasonable Woman as a Measure of Man (New York University Press, NewYork, NY 2000), 37 Crim. L. Bull. 119, 120-21 (2001)
299. Katherine M. Franke, What'sWrong with Sexual Harassment?, 48 Stan. L. Rev. 677, 691 (1997)
300. Kellie A. Kalbac, Through the Eye of the Beholder: Sexual Harassment Under the Reasonable PersonStandard, 3 Kan. J. L. & Pub. Pol'y 160 (1994)
301. Kathleen A. Kenealy, Sexual Harassmentand the Reasonable Woman Standard, 8 Lab. Law. 203, 204 (1992)
302. Melanie A. Meads, Applying the Reasonable Woman Standard in Evaluating Sexual HarassmentClaims: Is It Justified?, 17 Law & Psychol. Rev. 209, 219 (1993)
303. Deborah Zalesne, The Intersection of Socioeconomic Class and Genderin Hostile Environment Claims Under Title VIII: Who Is the Reasonable Person?, 38 B.C. L. Rev. 861, 865 (1997).
304. Jane L. Dolkart, Hostile Environment Harassment: Equality, Objectivity, andthe Shaping of Legal Standards, 43 Emory L.J. 151, 200-206 (1994)
305. Angela P. Harris, Race and Essentialism in Feminist Legal Theory, 42 Stan. L. Rev. 581, 585 (1990)
306. Pamela L. Hemminger, Sexual Harassment and the ReasonableWoman Standard, 20 Pepp. L. Rev. 1148, 1154 (1993)
307. Tracy L. Treger, Note, The Reasonable Woman? Unreasonable!!! Ellison v. Brady, 14 Whittier L. Rev. 675, 689-93 (1993
308. Robert S. Adler & Ellen R. Pierce, The Legal, Ethical, and Social Implicationsof the "Reasonable Woman" Standard in Sexual Harassment Cases, 61 FordhamL. Rev. 773, 825-27 (1993)
309. Liesa L. Bernardin, Note, Does the ReasonableWoman Exist and Does She Have Any Place in Hostile Environment Sexual HarassmentClaims Under Title VII After Harris, 46 Fla. L. Rev. 291, 318 (1994)
310. Paul B. Johnson, The Reasonable Woman in Sexual Harassment Law: Progress or Illusion?, 28 Wake Forest L. Rev. 619, 645-48 (1993)
311. Robert Unikel, Comment, "Reasonable" Doubts: A Critique of the ReasonableWomanStandard in American Jurisprudence, 87 Nw.U. L. Rev. 326, 367 (1992).
312. Lynn Dennison, Note, AnArgument for the Reasonable Woman Standard in Hostile Environment Claims, 54 Ohio St. L.J. 473, 493-94 (1993)
313. Theresa M. Beiner, Sex, Science and Social Knowledge: The Implications of Social Science Researchon Imputing Liability to Employers for Sexual Harassment, 7 Wm. & Mary J. Women & L. 273, 328-29 n. 369 (2001)
314. Theresa M. Beiner & John M.A. DiPippa, Hostile Environments and the Religious Employee, 19 U. Ark. Little Rock L.J. 577, 631 n.355 (1997) (same).
315. Margaret Bull Kovera et al., Reasoning About Scientific Evidence: Effects ofJuror Gender and Evidence Quality on Juror Decisions in a Hostile Work EnvironmentCase, 84 J. Applied Psychol. 362, 369 fig.1 (1999).
316. Biographical Directory of the Federal Judiciary 1789-2000 at 372, 607, 777 (2001).
317. Davis v. U.S. Postal Serv., 142 F.3d 1334, 1341 (10th Cir. 1998)
318. Dey v. Colt Constr. & Dev. Co., 28 F.3d 1446, 1455 (7th Cir. 1994
319. King v. Hillen, 21 F.3d 1572, 1583 (Fed. Cir. 1994).
320. Else K. Bolotin, Understanding the Emotional Reactions to Treatment of SexualHarassment, in Sex and Power Issues in the Workplace at 53, 54 (1992)
321. Adrienne D. Davis & Stephanie M. Wildman, The Legacy of Doubt: Treatment ofSex and Race in the Hill-Thomas Hearings, 65 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1367, 1375-78 (1992).
322. Kimberle Crenshaw, Demargenalizing the Intersectionof Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics, 1989 U. Chi. Legal F. 139
323. Meritor Sav. Bank v. Vinson, 477 U.S. 57, 68 (1986).
324. Janine Benedet, Hostile Environment Sexual Harassment Claims and theUnwelcome Influence of Rape Law, 3 Mich. J. Gender & L. 125 (1995)
325. Susan Estrich, Sex at Work, 43 Stan. L. Rev. 813 (1991).
326. Delaria v. Am. Gen. Fin., Inc., 998 F. Supp. 1050, 1059 (S.D. Iowa 1998)
327. Equal Employment Opportunity Comm'n, Policy Guidance on Current Issuesof Sexual Harassment, EEOC Notice N-915-050, at 7 (March 19, 1990).
328. Ann C. Juliano, Did She Ask for It?: The "Unwelcome" Requirement in Sexual Harassment Cases, 77 Cornell L. Rev. 1558 (1992)
329. Miranda Oshige, Note, What's Sex Got to Do with It? 47 Stan. L. Rev. 565, 579-80 (1995)
330. Mary F. Radford, By Invitation Only: The Proof of Welcomeness in Sexual HarassmentCases, 72 N.C. L. Rev. 499 (1994)
331. Joan S. Weiner, Note, Understanding Welcomenessin Sexual Harassment Law: Its History and a Proposal for Reform, 72 Notre Dame L. Rev. 621 (1997)
332. Casey J. Wood, "Inviting Sexual Harassment": TheAbsurdity of the Welcomeness Requirement in Sexual Harassment Law, 38 BrandeisL.J. 423 (2000).
333. Carr v. Allison Gas Turbine Div., Gen. Motors Corp., 32 F.3d 1007, 1008-9 (7thCir. 1994) (Posner, J.).
334. See, e.g., U. S. Merit Sys. Prot. Bd., Sexual Harassment in the FederalWorkplace: Trends, Progress, and Continuing Challenges x (1995)
335. Caroline C. Cochran et al., Predictors of Responses to Unwanted Sexual Attention, 21 Psychol.Women Q. 207, 217 (1997)
336. Kimberly T. Schneider et al., Job-Related and PsychologicalEffects of Sexual Harassment in the Workplace: Empirical Evidence from Two Organizations, 82 J. Applied Psychol. 401, 403 (1997).
337. Meritor Sav. Bank v. Vinson, 477 U.S. 57, 68 (1986).
338. Jacqueline H. Sloan, Comment, Extending Rape Shield Protectionto Sexual Harassment Actions: New Federal Rule of Evidence 412 Undermines MeritorSav. Bank v. Vinson, 25 Sw. U. L. Rev. 363 (1996).
339. P.J. Herchenroeder v. John Hopkins University Applied Physics Lab., 171 F.R.D. 179, 181-82 (D. Md. 1997)
340. Sanchez v. Zabihi, 166 F.R.D. 500, 501 (D.N.M. 1996)
341. Barta v. City & County of Honolulu, 169 F.R.D. 132, 135 (D. Hawaii 1996).
342. Harris v. Forklift Sys., Inc., 510 U.S. 17, 21 (1993).
343. Jane Goodman-Delahunty, Pragmatic Support for the ReasonableVictim Standard in Hostile Workplace Sexual Harassment Cases, 5 Psychol. Pub. Pol'y & L. 519, 538, 539 (1999).
344. Ann C. Juliano & Stewart J. Schwab, The Sweep of Sexual Harassment Cases, 86 Cornell L. Rev. 548, 565 (2001).
345. Meritor Sav. Bank v. Vinson, 477 U.S. 57, 68 (1986)
346. Hocevar v. Purdue Frederick Co., 223 F.3d 721, 736 (8th Cir. 2000).
347. Reed v. Shepard, 939 F.2d 484, 485 (7th Cir. 1991)
348. Weinsheimer v. Rockwell Int'l Corp. 754 F. Supp. 1559, 1567 (M.D. Fla. 1990)
349. Perkins v. Gen. MotorsCorp. 709 F. Supp. 1487, 1489 (W.D. Mo. 1989)
350. Loftin-Boggs v. City of Meridian, Miss., 633 F. Supp. 1323, 1324 (S.D. Miss. 1986)
351. Gan v. Kepro Circuit Sys., Inc., 28 Fair Empl. Prac. Cases (BNA) 639 (E.D. Mo. 1982).
352. Weinsheimer, 754 F. Supp. at 1564 n.12
353. Loftin-Boggs, 633 F. Supp. at 1327 n.8.
354. Balletti, 909 F. Supp. at 1547
355. Reed, 939 F.2d at 486
356. Weinsheimer, 754 F. Supp. at 1563
357. Loftin-Boggs, 633 F. Supp. at 1327
358. Gan, 28 Fair Empl. Prac. Cases (BNA) 639.
359. Walker v. AMR Servs. Corp., 971 F. Supp. 110, 114 (E.D.N.Y. 1997)
360. Cuesta v. Tex. Dep't of Crim. Justice, 805 F. Supp. 451, 457 (W.D. Tex. 1991) .
361. Jaros v. Lodgenet Entm't Corp., 171 F. Supp. 2d 992, 1003 (D.S.D. 2001)
362. Socks-Brunotv. Hirschvogel, Inc., 184 F.R.D. 113 (S.D. Ohio 1999).
363. Fedio v. Circuit City Stores, No. CIV. A 97-5851, 1998 WL 966000, at *5 (E.D. Pa. Nov. 4, 1998).
364. Frank E. Saal et al., Friendly or Sexy? It May Depend on Whom YouAsk, 13 Psychol.Women Q. 263 (1989).
365. Sharyn A. Lenhart & Diane K. Shrier, Potential Costs and Benefits of SexualHarassment Litigation, 26 Psychiatric Annals 132, 132-33, 134-37 (1996).
366. James Gruber, How Women Handle Sexual Harassment: A Literature Review, 74 Soc. Sci. Rev. 3, 5, 8 (tbl.) (1989).
367. See Aysan Sev'er, Sexual Harassment: Where We Were, Where We Are and Prospects for the New Millennium, 36 Canadian Rev. Soc. & Anthropology 469, 478 (1999).
368. See Louise F. Fitzgerald, Examining (and Eliminating) the Consequences of Sexual Harassment: An Integrated Model, in Sex and Power Issues in the Workplace, A Conference to Promote Men and Women Working Productively Together 61, 63 (1992)
369. Barbara A. Gutek & Mary P. Koss, Changed Women and Changed Organizations: Consequences of and Coping with Sexual Harassment, 42 J. Vocational Behav. 28, 31 (1993)
370. Rebecca A. Thacker, A Descriptive Study of Situational and Individual Influences upon Individuals' Responses to Sexual Harassment, 49 Hum. Rel. 1105, 1116 (1996).
371. See Cathy L.Z. DuBois et al., An Empirical Examination of Same-and Other-Gender Sexual Harassment in the Workplace, 39 Sex Roles 731, 740 (tbl. III) (1998).
372. See Douglas D. Baker et al., The Influence of Individual Characteristics and Severity of Harassing Behavior on Reactions to Sexual Harassment, 22 Sex Roles 305, 318 (1990);
373. James E. Gruber & Lars Bjorn, Women's Responses to Sexual Harassment: An Analysis of Sociocultural, Organizational, and Personal Resource Models, 67 Soc. Sci. Q. 814, 822 (1986).
374. See, e.g., Linda Brooks & Annette R. Perot, Reporting Sexual Harassment, 15 Psychol. Women Q. 31, 42-43, 45 (1991) ("Feminist ideology and frequency of behavior showed direct effects on perceived offensiveness, which in turn directly predicted reporting.").
375. Margaret S. Stockdale, The Direct and Moderating Influences of Sexual-Harassment Pervasiveness, Coping Strategies, and Gender on Work-Related Outcomes, 22 Psychol.Women Q. 521, 531 (1998).
376. see Susan Antilla, Tales from the Boom-Boom Room: Women vs. Wall Street (2002).
377. See, e.g., Kerry Seagrave, The Sexual Harassment of Women in the Workplace, 1600 to 1993 (McFarland & Co. 1994);
378. Susan Eisenberg,We'll Call You if We Need You: Experiences of Women Working Construction 69-85 (Cornell University Press 1998);
379. Janice D. Yoder & Patricia Aniakudo, When Pranks Become Harassment: The Case of African American Women Firefighters, 35 Sex Roles 253 (1996).
380. James E. Gruber & Lars Bjorn, Blue-Collar Blues: The Sexual Harassment of Women Autoworkers, 9 Work & Occupations 271, 282 (1981);
381. see also Jane L. Dolkart, Hostile Environment Harassment: Equality, Objectivity, and the Shaping of Legal Standards, 43 Emory L.J. 151, 184-85 n.127 (1994)
382. Phyllis Kernoff Mansfield, The Job Climate for Women in Traditionally Male Blue-Collar Occupations, 25 Sex Roles 63, 71 (1991)
383. Suzanne E. Tallichet, Gendered Relations in the Mines and the Division of Labor Underground, 9 Gender & Soc'y 697, 702 (1995).
384. Kristen R. Yount, Ladies, Flirts, and Tomboys: Strategies for Managing Sexual Harassment in an Underground Coal Mine, 19 J. Contemp. Ethnography 396, 400 (1991);
385. Mary Lindenstein Walshok, Blue-Collar Women: Pioneers on the Male Frontier 230 (1981).
386. See Robin M. Kowalski, Inferring Sexual Interest from Behavioral Cues: Effects of Gender and Sexually Relevant Attitudes, 29 Sex Roles 13, 14 (1992) (citing studies).
387. See, e.g., Antonia Abbey, Sex Differences in Attributions for Friendly Behavior: Do Males Misperceive Females' Friendliness?, 42 J. Personality & Soc. Psychol. 830, 836 (1982);
388. Antonia Abbey et al., Misperceptions of Friendly Behavior as Sexual Interest: A Survey of Naturally Occurring Incidents, 11 Psychol. Women Q. 173, 178 (1987).
389. Catherine B. Johnson et al., Persistence of Men's Misperceptions of Friendly Cues across a Variety of Interpersonal Encounters, 15 Psychol. Women Q. 463, 466 (1991).
390. Margaret S. Stockdale, The Role of Sexual Misperceptions of Women's Friendliness in an Emerging Theory of Sexual Harassment, 42 J. Vocational Behav. 84, 87 (1993).
391. Frank E. Saal, Men's Misperceptions of Women's Interpersonal Behaviors and Sexual Harassment, in Sexual Harassment in the Workplace: Perspectives, Frontiers, and Response Strategies at 67, 81 (Margaret S. Stockdale ed., 1996).
392. See generally Linda Burnham, Welfare Reform, Family Hardship and Women of Color, 577 Annals 38, 39 (2001).
393. Eighth Circuit Gender Fairness Task Force, Final Report & Recommen-dations of the Eighth Circuit Gender Fairness Task Force, reprinted in 31 Creighton L. Rev. 9, 15, 73 (1997).
394. See Andrea A. Curcio, Rule 412 Laid Bare: A Procedural Rule That Cannot Adequately Protect Sexual Harassment Plaintiffs from Embarrassing Exposure, 67 U. Cin. L. Rev. 125, 140 (1998).
395. Howard, 177 F.R.D. 48, 52 (D.D.C. 1997).
396. See, e.g., Richard Epstein, Forbidden Grounds: The Case against Employment Discrimination Laws 350 (1992);
397. Michael J. Frank, The Social Context Variable in Hostile Environment Litigation, 77 Notre Dame L. Rev. 437, 459 n.102 (2002);
398. Mark McLaughlin Hager, Harassment as a Tort: Why Title VII Hostile Environment Liability Should be Curtailed, 30 Conn. L. Rev. 375, 380 n.8 (1988).
399. Freada Klein, The 1988 Working Woman Sexual Harassment Survey: Executive Report 20, 23 (1988)
400. See also Ronni Sandroff, Sexual Harassment in the Fortune 500, Working Woman 69, 72 (Dec. 1988)
401. Soc'y for Human Res. Mgmt.,Workplace Romance Survey 2 (Alexandria, VA, Public Affairs Dept. 1998)
402. Charles A. Pierce & Herman Aguinis, A Framework for Investigating the Link between Workplace Romance and Sexual Harassment, 26 Group & Organizational Mgmt. 206, 208 (2001).
403. Charles A. Pierce et al., Effects of a Dissolved Workplace Romance and Rater Characteristics on Responses to a Sexual Harassment Accusation, 43 Acad. Mgmt. J. 869, 875, 877 (2000);
404. Russel J. Summers & Karin Myklebust, The Influence of a History of Romance on Judgments and Response to a Complaint of Sexual Harassment, 27 Sex Roles 345, 352 (1992).
405. See Keppler V. Hinsdale Township High School Dist., 715 F. Supp. 862, 864-65 (N.D. Ill. 1989)
406. See, e.g., Mauro, 259 A.2d at 92
407. Keppler, 715 F. Supp. at 869-70
408. Freeman v. Continental Technical Serv., Inc., 710 F. Supp. 328, 331 (N.D. Ga. 1988) (discriminatory termination case);
409. See B. Glenn George, The Back Door: Legitimizing Sexual Harassment Claims, 73 B.U. L. Rev. 1, 29-30 (1993)
410. See William E. Foote & Jane Goodman-Delahunty, Same-sexual harassment: Implications of the Oncale Decision for Forensic Evaluation of Plaintiffs, 17 Behav. Sci. & L. 123, 125 (1999);
411. Margaret S. Stockdale et al., Sexual Harassment of Men: Evidence for a Broader Theory of Sexual Harassment and Sex Discrimination, 5 Psychol. Pub. Pol'y & L. 630, 660 (1999).
412. See Hilary S. Axam & Deborah Zalesne, Simulated Sodomy and Other Forms of Heterosexual "Horseplay:" Same Sex Sexual Harassment, Workplace Gender Hierarchies, and the Myth of the Gender Monolith Before and After Oncale, 11 Yale J.L. & Feminism 155, 176 (1999);
413. Mary Anne C. Case, Disaggregating Gender from Sex and Sexual Orientation: The Effeminate Man and Feminist Jurisprudence, 105 Yale L.J. 1, 2 (1995).
414. Meritor Sav. Bank v. Vinson, 477 U.S. 57, 66 (1986)
415. Price Waterhouse V. Hopkins, 490 U.S. 228, 251 (1989) .
416. See Vicki Schultz, Reconceptualizing Sexual Harassment, 107 Yale L.J. 1683, 1762 (1998) (arguing for a broadening of the theory to include gender harassment).
417. Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Servs., Inc., 523 U.S. 75, 80-81 (1998).
418. David S. Schwartz, When Is Sex Because of Sex? The Causation Problem in Sexual Harassment Law, 150 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1697, 1729 (2002);
419. see also L. Camille Hebert, Sexual Harassment as Discrimination "Because of... Sex": Have We Come Full Circle?, 27 Ohio N.U. L. Rev. 439, 448 (2001) (noting that Oncale "resurrected" the issue of when harassment is "because of sex").
420. Shepherd v. Slater Steels Corp., 168 F.3d 998, 1009 (7th Cir. 1999) (Oncale list meant to be "instructive," not "exhaustive").
421. Rene v. MGM Grand Hotel, Inc., 305 F.3d 1061, 1066 (9th Cir. 2002) (en banc).
422. Nichols v. Azteca Rest. Enter., Inc., 256 F.3d 864, 870 (9th Cir. 2001).
423. See, e.g., Doe v. City of Belleville, Illinois, 119 F.3d 563 (7th Cir. 1997)
424. Ianetta v. Putnam Invs., Inc., 142 F. Supp. 2d 131 (D. Mass. 2001) (motion to dismiss).
425. Bibby v. Philadelphia Coca Cola Bottling Co., 260 F.3d 257, 259-60 (3d Cir. 2001).
426. Johnson v. Hondo, Inc., 125 F.3d 408, 410-11 (7th Cir. 1997).
427. See, e.g., Davis v. Coastal Int'l Sec., Inc., 275 F.3d 1119 (D.C. Cir. 2002)
428. EEOC v. Harbert-Yeargin, Inc., 266 F.3d 498 (6th Cir. 2001)
429. Harbert-Yeargin, Inc., 266 F.3d at 520 (Guy, J.).
430. Davis, 275 F.3d at 1121-22, 1124-25.
431. LaDay v. Catalyst Tech., Inc., 302 F.3d 474, 476 (5th Cir. 2002).
432. See also Shepherd v. Slater Steels Corp., 168 F.3d 998, 1009-10 (7th Cir. 1999) (holding similarly).
433. Ocheltree v. Scollon Prods., Inc., 308 F.3d 351 (4th Cir. 2002)
434. Aff'd in part, rev'd in part, 335 F.3d 325 (4th Cir2003)
435. Ocheltree, 308 F.3d at 353.
436. Holman v. Indiana, 211 F.3d 399, 401 (7th Cir. 2000).
437. Brown v. Henderson, 257 F.3d 246, 249-50 (2d Cir. 2001).
438. Beard v. Flying J, Inc., 266 F.3d 792, 798 (8th Cir. 2001).
439. EEOC v. R&R Ventures, 244 F.3d 334, 338-39 (4th Cir. 2001).
440. Gross v. Burggraf Constr. Co., 53 F.3d 1531, 1536 (10th Cir. 1995).
441. Robinson v. Jacksonville Shipyards, Inc., 760 F. Supp. 1486, 1493-1502 (M.D. Fla. 1991).
442. See also, e.g., Hurley v. Atlantic City Police Dep't, 174 F.3d 95 (3d Cir. 1999)
443. Jenson v. Eveleth Taconite Co., 130 F.3d 1287 (8th Cir. 1997);
444. Christopher Massaro, The Role of Workplace Culture Evidence in Hostile Workplace Environment Sexual Harassment Litigation: Does Title VII Mean New Management or Just Business as Usual?, 46 N.Y. L. Sch. L. Rev. 349, 359-65 (2002-3) (discussing cases).
445. Succar v. Dade County Sch. Bd., 229 F.3d 1343, 1344 (11th Cir. 2000) (per curiam).
446. See Pipkins v. City of Temple Terrace, Florida, 267 F.3d 1197, 1200 (11th Cir. 2001).
447. 78 F.3d 1164 (7th Cir. 1996). The Galloway case has been compared to similar racial harassment cases in Robert J. Gregory, You Can Call Me a "Bitch" Just Don't Use the "N-Word": Some Thoughts on
448. Galloway v. General Motors Service Parts Opera-tions and Rogers v. Western Southern Life Insurance Co., 46 DePaul L. Rev. 741 (1997).
449. Green v. Adm's of the Tulane Educ. Fund, 284 F.3d 642, 657 (5th Cir. 2002)
450. See Catharine MacKinnon, Sexual Harassment of Working Women 1, 55 (1979).
451. See John A. Bargh & Paula Raymond, The Naive Misuse of Power: Nonconscious Sources of Sexual Harassment, 51 J. Soc. Issues, Spring 1995, at 85;
452. Cathy L.Z. DuBois et al., An Empirical Examination of Same-and Other-Gender Sexual Harassment in the Workplace, 39 Sex Roles 731, 733 (1998);
453. John B. Pryor & L.M. Stoller, Sexual Cognition Processes in Men Who Are High in Likelihood to Sexually Harass, 20 Personality & Soc. Psychol. Bull. 163 (1994).
454. See Louise F. Fitzgerald & Alayne J. Ormerod, Breaking Silence: The Sexual Harassment of Women in Academia and the Workplace, in Psychology of Women: A Handbook of Issues and Theories at 553, 561-63
455. Florence L. Denmark & Michele A. Paludi eds., 1993
456. Frank E. Saal et al., Friendly or Sexy? It May Depend on Whom You Ask, 13 Psychol. Women Q. 263, 264-65 (1989);
457. Margaret S. Stockdale, The Role of Sexual Misperceptions of Women's Friendliness in an Emerging Theory of Sexual Harassment, 42 J. Vocational Behav. 84, 94-97 (1993).
458. Sandra S. Tangri et al., Sexual Harassment at Work: Three Explanatory Models, 38 J. Soc. Issues, Winter 1982, at 33, 40 (citation omitted).
459. Stacy DeCoster et al., Routine Activities and Sexual Harassment in the Workplace, 26 Work & Occupations 21, 29, 42 (1999).
460. Jennifer L. Berdahl et al., The Sexual Harassment of Men? Exploring the Concept with Theory and Data, 20 Psychol.Women Q. 527, 543 (1996).
461. Katherine M. Franke, What's Wrong with Sexual Harassment?, 49 Stan. L. Rev. 691, 745 (1997).
462. Margaret S. Stockdale, The Sexual Harassment of Men: Articulating the Approach-Rejection Theory of Sexual Harassment at 6, to be published in In the Company of Men: Re-Discovering the Links between Sexual Harassment and Male Domination (James E. Gruber & Phoebe Morgan eds., forthcoming)
463. Margaret S. Stockdale et al., Perceptions of Sexual Harassment of Men, at 26, in Psychol. Men & Masculinities (forthcoming) (manuscript on file with author).
464. See, e.g., Craig R. Waldo et al., Are Men Sexually Harassed? If so, by Whom?, 22 Law & Human Behav. 59 (1998)
465. See Barbara A. Gutek & Bruce Morasch, Sex-Ratios, Sex-Role Spillover and Sexual Harassment of Women at Work, 38 J. Soc. Issues, Winter 1982, at 55, 57.
466. See also Diana Burgess & Eugene Borgida, Sexual Harassment: An Experimental Test of Sex-Role Spillover Theory, 23 Personality & Soc. Psychol. Bull. 63, 65 (1997).
467. Eugene Borgida et al., On the Courtroom Use and Misuse of Gender Stereotyping Research, 51 J. Soc. Issues, Spring 1995, at 181;
468. Kay Deaux, How Basic Can You Be? The Evolution of Research on Gender Stereotypes, 51 J. Soc. Issues, Spring 1995, at 11, 13;
469. Susan T. Fiske & Peter Glick, Ambivalence and Stereotypes Cause Sexual Harassment: A Theory with Implications for Organizational Changes, 51 J. Soc. Issues, Spring 1995, at 97.
470. Kay Deaux & Mary Kite, Gender Stereotypes, in Psychology of Women: A Handbook of Issues and Theories 107, 115
471. Florence L. Denmark & Michele A. Paludi, eds. 1993) (citing studies).
472. Susan T. Fiske, Controlling Other People: The Impact of Power on Stereotyping, 48 Am. Psychol. 621, 623 (1993).
473. See Katherine K. Baker, Gender, Genes, and Choice: A Comparative Look at Feminism, Evolution and Economics, 80 N.C. L. Rev. 465, 467, 471-74 (2002);
474. Owen D. Jones, Realities of Rape: Of Science and Politics, Causes and Meanings, 86 Cornell L. Rev. 1386, 1391-92 (2001).
475. Michael V. Studd & Urs E. Gattiker, The Evolutionary Psychology of Sexual Harassment in Organizations, 12 Ethology & Sociobiology 249, 286 (1991).
476. Kingsley R. Browne, Biology at Work: Rethinking Sexual Equality 194-96 (2002).
477. Antonia Abbey, Misperceptions of Friendly Behavior as Sexual Interest: A Survey of Naturally Occurring Incidents, 11 Psychol.Women Q. 173, 182-84 (1987)).
478. See Cindy Struckman-Johnson & David Struckman-Johnson, College Men's and Women's Reactions to Hypothetical Sexual Touch Varied by Initiator Gender and Coercion Level, 29 Sex Roles 371, 379-80 (1993)
479. Joshua A. Raines, Same-Sex Sexual Harassment: Factors Affecting the Perception of an Evaluative Third Party/2002
480. Ruth Bleier, Science and Gender: A Critique of Biology and Its Theories on Women 115-37 (1984).
481. See John B. Pryor, The Social Psychology of Sexual Harassment: Person and Situation Factors Which Give Rise to Sexual Harassment, in Sex and Power Issues in the Workplace 90 (1992).
482. Jackie Krasas Rogers & Kevin D. Hanson, "Hey, Why Don't You Wear a Shorter Skirt?" Structural Vulnerability and the Organization of Sexual Harassment in Temporary Clerical Employment, 11 Gender & Soc'y 215, 226 (1997).
483. John B. Pryor et al., A Social Psychological Model for Predicting Sexual Harassment, 51 J. Soc. Issues, Spring 1995, at 69, 73
484. Juanita M. Firestone & Richard J. Harris, Changes in Patterns of Sexual Harassment in the U.S. Military: A Comparison of the 1988 and 1995 DoD Surveys, 25 Armed Forces & Soc'y 613, 623 (1999);
485. Louise F. Fitzgerald et al., Why Didn't She Just Report Him? The Psychological and Legal Implications of Women's Responses to Sexual Harassment, 51 J. Soc. Issues, Spring 1995, at 117, 127;
486. Audrey J. Murrell et al., Sexual Harassment and Gender Discrimination: A Longitudinal Study of Women Managers, 51 J. Soc. Issues, Spring 1995, at 139, 140-41;
487. John B. Pryor et al., A Social Psychological Analysis of Sexual Harassment: The Person/Situation Interaction, 42 J. Vocational Behav. 68, 69-73 (1993) [hereinafter Pryor, Analysis].
488. Laurie A. Rudman & Eugene Borgida, The Afterglow of Construct Accessibility: The Behavioral Consequences of Priming Men to View Women as Sexual Objects, 31 J. Experimental Soc. Psychol. 493, 503 (1995).
489. Doug McKenzie-Mohr & Mark P. Zanna, Treating Women as Sexual Objects: Look to the (Gender Schematic) Male Who Has Viewed Pornography, 16 Personality & Soc. Psychol. Bull. 296, 305 (1990).
490. For an example of this in a real case, see Burns v. McGregor Elec. Indus., 989 F.2d 959 (8th Cir. 1993).
491. See James M. Wilkerson, The Impact of Job Level and Prior Training on Sexual Harassment Labeling and Remedy Choice, 29 J. Applied Soc. Psychol. 1605, 1606-7 (1999).
492. Barbara A. Gutek et al., Predicting Social-Sexual Behavior at Work: A Contact Hypothesis, 33 Acad. of Mgmt. J. 560, 565 (1990).
493. See Denise M. Driscoll et al., Can Perceivers Identify Likelihood to Sexually Harass?, 38 Sex Roles 557, 559 (1998)
494. Louise F. Fitzgerald et al., Antecedents and Consequences of Sexual Harassment in Organizations: A Test of an Integrated Model, 82 J. Applied Psychol. 578, 578-79 (1997).
495. Matthew S. Hesson-McInnis & Louise F. Fitzgerald, Sexual Harassment: A Preliminary Test of an Integrative Model, 27 J. Applied Soc. Psych. 877, 882 tbl. 1 (1997).
496. See Kathryn Abrams, The New Jurisprudence of Sexual Harassment, 83 Cornell L. Rev. 1169 (1998);
497. See, e.g., Helen Lafferty, Is Sexual Harassment Sex Discrimination? Still an Open Question, Buff. Women's L.J. 21 (1999);
498. Ellen Frankel Paul, Sexual Harassment as Sex Discrimination: A Defective Paradigm, 8 Yale L. & Pol'y Rev. 333 (1990).
499. Linda Hamilton Krieger, The Content of Our Categories: A Cognitive Bias Approachto Discrimination and Equal Employment Opportunity, 47 Stan. L. ReV. 1161, 1174 (1995).
500. Johnson V. Hondo, Inc., 125 408, 410-11 (7th Cir. 1997).
501. Vicki Schultz, The Sanitized Workplace, 112 Yale L.J. 2061, 2064 (2003).
502. Sharon A. Lobel, Sexuality at Work: Where Do We Go from Here?, 42 J. Vocational BehaV. 136 (1993).
503. Brown V. Henderson, 257 F.3d 246, 253-54 (2d Cir. 2001).
504. Ocheltree V. Scollon Prods., Inc., 308 351, 378
505. Galloway V. Gen. Motors SerV. Parts Operations, 78 1164, 1167 (7th Cir. 1996).
506. Susan Bisom-Rapp, Bulletproofing the Workplace: Symbol andSubstance in Employment Discrimination Law, 26 Fla. St. U. L. ReV. 959 (1999).
507. Thomas L. Steiger & Mark Wardell, Gender andEmployment in the Service Sector, 42 Soc. Probs. 91, 93 (1995) (studies cited).
508. Fenton V. Hisan, Inc., 174 827, 829-30 (6th Cir. 1999)
509. Baty V. Willamette Indus., Inc., 172 1232, 1241-42 (10th Cir. 1999)
510. Burrell V. Star Nursery, Inc., 170 951, 955 (9th Cir. 1999).
511. Faragher V. City of Boca Raton, 524 U.S. 775 (1998)
512. Burlington Indus., Inc. V. Ellerth, 524 U.S. 742, 759, 760-61 (1998).
513. Meritor Savings Bank V. Vinson, 477 U.S. 57, 72 (1986).
514. J. Hoult Verkerke, Notice Liability in Employment DiscriminationLaw, 81 Va. L. ReV. 273 (1995).
515. Robinson V. City of Pittsburgh, 120 1286, 1297 (3d Cir. 1997)
516. Jansen V. Packaging Corp. of Am., 123 490 (7th Cir. 1997)
517. Savino V. C.P. Hall. Co., 988 F. Supp. 1171, 1181-83 (N.D. Ill. 1997)
518. Gary V. Long, 59 1391, 1396 (D.C. Cir. 1995)
519. Caridad V. Metro-North Commuter R.R., 191 283, 295 (2d Cir. 1999)
520. Joanna L. Grossman, The Culture of Compliance: The Final Triumph ofForm over Substance in Sexual Harassment Law, 26 HarV. Women's L.J. 3, 9-14 (2003) (describing cases).
521. Equal Employment Opportunity Comm'n, Enforcement Guidance: Vicarious Employer Liability for Unlawful Harassment by Supervisors 13-14 (1999).
522. Douglas D. Baker et al., The Influence of Individual Characteristics andSeverity of Harassing Behavior on Reactions to Sexual Harassment, 22 Sex Roles 305, 313 tbl. I (1990)
523. Elissa L. Perry et al., Individual Differences in the Effectiveness of Sexual HarassmentAwareness Training, 28 J. Applied Soc. Psychol. 698, 699 (1998).
524. Robert S. Moyer & Anjan Nath, Some Effects of Brief Training Interventions on Perceptionsof Sexual Harassment, 28 J. Applied Soc. Psychol. 333, 334 (1998).
525. Susan Bisom-Rapp, An Ounce of Prevention Is a Poor Substitute for a Pound ofCure: Confronting the Developing Jurisprudence of Education and Prevention in EmploymentDiscrimination Law, 22 Berkeley J. Employment & Lab. L. 1, 44-47 (2001).
526. James M. Wilkerson, The Impactof Job Level and Prior Training on Sexual Harassment Labeling and RemedyChoice, 29 J. Applied Soc. Psychol. 1605, 1611-12, 1617 (1999)
527. James E. Gruber, The Sexual Harassment Experiences of Women inNontraditional Jobs: Results from Cross-National Research, in Sex and Power Issuesin the Workplace 123 (1992)
528. Wendy Pollack, Expanding the Legal Definition of SexualHarassment, in Sex and Power Issues in the Workplace 143, 146-47 (1992)
529. L. Blakely et al., The Effects of Training on Perceptions of Sexual HarassmentAllegations, 28 J. Applied Soc. Psychol. 71, 73, 77 (1998)
530. Lauren B. Edelman et al., The Endogeneity of Legal Regulation: Grievance Proceduresas Rational Myth, 105 Am. J. Sociology 406 (1999)
531. James F. Gruber, The Impact of Male Work Environments and OrganizationalPolicies on Women's Experiences of Sexual Harassment, 12 Gender & Soc'y 301, 304 (1998)
532. Louise F. Fitzgerald, Examining (and Eliminating) the Consequences of SexualHarassment: An Integrated Model, in Sex and Power Issues in the Workplace at 61, 63 (1992)
533. Rebecca A. Thacker, A Descriptive Study of Situational and IndividualInfluences upon Individuals' Response to Sexual Harassment, 49 Hum. Rel. 1105, 1106 (1996)
534. Rebecca A. Thacker & Stephan F. Gohmann, Emotional and PsychologicalConsequences of Sexual Harassment: A Descriptive Study, 30 J. Psychology 429, 429-30 (1996).
535. Barbara A. Gutek & Mary P. Koss, Changed Women and Changed Organi-zations: Consequences of and Coping with Sexual Harassment, 42 J. VocationalBehaV. 28, 36 (1993).
536. Jessica Wolfe et al., Sexual Harassment and Assault as Predictors of PTSDSymptomatology among U.S. Female Persian Gulf War Military Personnel, 13 J. InterpersonalViolence 40, 54 (1998)
537. Edgar Garcia-Rill & Erica Beecher-Monas, Gatekeeping Stress: The Scienceand Admissibility of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder, 24 U. Ark. Little Rock L. ReV. 9, 17 (2001).
538. Lisa Bloom, Gretel Fights Back: Representing Sexual Harassment PlaintiffsWho Were Sexually Abused as Children, 12 Berk.Women's L.J. 1 (1997)
539. Kent D. Streseman, Headshrinkers, Manmunchers, Moneygrubbers, Nuts & Sluts: ReexaminingCompelled Mental Examinations in Sexual Harassment Actions under the Civil RightsAct of 1991, 80 Cornell L. ReV. 1268 (1995).
540. Margaret S. Stockdale et al., Acknowledging Sexual Harassment: A Test ofAlternative Models, 17 Basic & Applied Soc. Psychol. 469, 493 (1995).
541. Louise F. Fitzgerald et al., The Incidence of Sexual Harassment in Academia andthe Workplace, 32 J. Vocational BehaV. 152, 171 (1988)
542. Caroline C. Cochran et al., Predictors of Responses to Unwanted Sexual Attention, 21 Psychol. Women Q. 207, 217 (1997)
543. Louise H. Kidder et al., Recalling Harassment, Reconstructing Experience, 51 J. Soc. Issues, Spring 1995, at 53, 56, 62.
544. Louise F. Fitzgerald et al., Why Didn't She Just Report Him? The Psychologicaland Legal Implications of Women's Responses to Sexual Harassment, 51 J. Soc. Issues, Spring 1995, at 117, 122
545. Stephanie Riger, Gender Dilemmas in Sexual Harassment Policies and Procedures, in Sex and Power Issues in the Workplace 43, 44 (1992).
546. Barbara A. Gutek & Bruce Morasch, Sex-Rations, Sex-Role Spillover andSexual Harassment of Women at Work, 38 J. Soc. Issues, Winter 1982, at 55, 71.
547. Ingebjorg S. Folgero & Ingrid H. Fjeldstad, On Duty-Off Guard: CulturalNorms and Sexual Harassment in Service Organizations, 16 Org. Stud. 299, 311 (1995)
548. Patti A. Giuffre & Christine L. Williams, Boundary Lines: Labeling SexualHarassment in Restaurants, 8 Gender & Society 378, 397 (1994).
549. James E. Gruber, How Women Handle Sexual Harassment: A Literature Review, 74 Soc. Sci. Res. 3, 4 (1989).
550. Inger W. Jensen & Barbara A. Gutek, Attributions and Assignment of Responsibilityin Sexual Harassment, 38 J. Soc. Issues, Winter 1982, at 121, 127, 128, 132.
551. Matthew S. Hesson-McInnis & Louise F. Fitzgerald, Sexual Harassment: A PreliminaryTest of an Integrative Model, 27 J. Applied Soc. Psychol. 877, 896 (2002).
552. Audrey Murrell et al., Sexual Harassment and Gender Discrimination: A LongitudinalStudy of Women Managers, 51 J. Soc. Issues, Spring 1995, at 139, 141.
553. Frances S. Coles, Forced to Quit: Sexual Harassment Complaints and AgencyResponse, 14 Sex Roles 81 (1986)
554. Mindy E. Bergman et al., The (Un)reasonableness of Reporting: Antecedents andConsequences of Reporting Sexual Harassment, 87 J. Applied Psych. 230, 232 (2002).
555. Holly D. V. California Inst. of Tech., 339 1158, 1162 (9th Cir. 2003).
556. Martha S. West, Preventing Sexual Harassment: The Federal Courts' Wake-Up Call for Women, 68 Brook. L. ReV. 457, 505, 519-22 (2002).
557. Theresa M. Beiner & John M.A. DiPippa, Hostile Environments and theReligious Employee, 19 U. Ark. Little Rock L.J. 571, 631-32 (1997)
558. Robinson V. Jacksonville Shipyards, 760 F. Supp. 1486 (M.D. Fla. 1991)
559. Jules B. Gerard, The First Amendment in Hostile Environment: A Primer on Free Speech Sexual Harassment, 68 Notre Dame L. ReV. 1003, 1006-7, 1015-16 (1993)
560. Kingsley R. Browne, Title VII as Censorship: Hostile-Environment Harassmentand the First Amendment, 52 Ohio St. L.J. 481, 483-84, 513-31 (1991)
561. Cynthia L. Estlund, The Architecture of the First Amendment and the Caseof Workplace Harassment, 72 Notre Dame L. ReV. 1361, 1381 (1997)
562. Mari J. Matsuda, Public Response to Racist Speech: Considering the Victim's Story, 87 Mich. L. ReV. 2320 (1989)
563. Faragher V. Boca Raton, 524 U.S. 775, 805-6 (1998)
564. Williams V. Pharmacia Opthalmics, Inc., 926 F. Supp. 791, 793 (N.D. Ind. 1996)
565. Barbara A. Gutek & Mary P. Koss, Changed Women and Changed Organizations: Consequences of and Coping with Sexual Harassment, 42 J. Vocational BehaV. 28, 30 (1993).
566. Vicki J. Magley et al., The Impact of Sexual Harassment on Military Personnel: Is it the Same for Men and Women?, 11 Mil. Psychol. 283, 285 (1999).
567. Paula C. Morrow et al., Sexual Harassment Behaviors and Work Related Perceptionsand Attitudes, 45 J. Vocational BehaV. 295, 303 (1994).
568. Bonnie S. Dansky & Dean G. Kilpatrick, Effects of Sexual Harassment, inSexual Harassment: Theory, Research, and Treatment 152, 164 (William O'-Donohue ed. 1997).
569. Kimberly T. Schneider et al., Job-Related and Psychological Effects of Sexual Harassmentin the Workplace: Empirical Evidence from Two Organizations, 82 J. AppliedPsychol. 401, 412-13 (1997).
570. Sharyn A. Lenhart & Diane K. Shrier, Potential Costs and Benefits of SexualHarassment Litigation, 26 Psychiatric Annals 132, 136 (1996).
571. Delaney V. City of Hampton, Virginia, 999 F. Supp. 794 (E.D. Va. 1998)
572. Lisa Bloom, Gretel Fights Back: Representing Sexual Harassment PlaintiffsWho Were Sexually Abused as Children, 12 Berk.Women's L.J. 1, 2-3 (1997).
573. Margaret S. Stockdale et al., The Relationship between Prior Sexual Abuse andReactions to Sexual Harassment, 8 Psychol. Pub. Pol'y & L. 64, 67-68 (2002).
574. Louise F. Fitzgerald et al., Junk Logic: The Abuse Defense in Sexual HarassmentLitigation, 5 Psychol. Pub. Pol'y & L. 730, 731 (1999).
575. Edith Greene et al., Juror Decisions about Damages in Employment DiscriminationCases, 17 BehaV. Sci. & L. 107, 108 (1999).
576. Edith Greene & Brian H. Bornstein, Determining Damages: The Psychologyof Jury Awards 21-23, 32-36, 103-7 (2003).
577. B. Ostrom et al., What Are Tort Awards Really Like? The Untold Storyfrom the State Courts, 14 Law & Pol'y 77 (1992)).
578. R. Sunstein et al., Punitive Damages: How JuriesDecide 31-42 (2002)
579. Janice R. Franke, Does Title VII Contemplate Personal Liability for Employee/ Agent Defendants?, 12 Hofstra Labor L.J. 39, 60 n.139 (1994).
580. Avon L. Sergeant, Are the Legal Remedies Available to Sexually HarassedWomen Adequate?, 20 Women's Rts. L. Rep. 185, 190 (1999)
581. Ivy E. Broder, Characteristics of Million Dollar Awards: Jury Verdicts and FinalDisbursements, 11 Just. Sys. J. 349, 353 tbl.2 (1986).
582. Neil Vidmar et al., Jury Awards for Medical Malpractice and Post-Verdict Adjustmentsof Those Awards, 48 DePaul L. ReV. 265, 285 (1998).
583. Kevin F. O'Malley et al., 3 Federal Jury Practice and Instructions: Civil §128.02 at 429 (5th ed. 2000).
584. Jane L. Dolkart, Hostile Environment Harassment: Equality, Objectivity, and theShaping of Legal Standards, 43 Emory L.J. 151, 210 (1994).