Changes in patterns of sexual harassment in the U.S. Military: A comparison of the 1988 and 1995 DoD surveys

Armed Forces and Society

Volumn 25, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 613-632

  Firestone, Juanita M ^b   Harris, Richard J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT SAN ANTONIO   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0033440046     PISSN: 0095327X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0095327X9902500405     Document Type: Review

References (105)

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12. L. Grauerholz, "Sexual Harassment of Women Professors by Students: Exploring the Dynamics of Power, Authority, and Gender in a University Setting," Sex Roles 21 (1989): 789-801; E. Grauerholz, "Sexual Harassment in the Academy: The Case of Women Professors," in Sexual Harassment in the Workplace: Perspectives, Frontiers, and Response Strategies (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996) 29-50; J.E. Gruber, M. Smith and K. Kauppinen-Toropainen, "Sexual Harassment Types and Severity: Linking Research and Policy," in Sexual Harassment in the Workplace; Perspectives, Frontiers, and Response Strategies (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), 151-173. S.E. Martin, "Sexual Harassment: The Link Joining Gender Stratification, Sexuality, and Women's Economic Status," in Women: A Feminist Perspective (3rd ed.), ed. J. Freeman (Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield, 1989), 54-69; see also B.A. Gutek, Sex and the Workplace: The Impact of Sexual Behavior and Harassment on Men, Women and Organizations (San Francisco, Jossey-Bass 1985); D.E. Maypole, "Sexual Harassment of Social Workers at Work: Injustice Within?" Social Work 31 (1986): 29-34; B.R. Ragins, and T.A. Sandura, "Antecedents and Work-Related Correlates of Reported Sexual Harassment: An Empirical Investigation of Competing Hypotheses," Sex Roles 32 (1995): 429-455; C. G. Donald, and S. Merker, "Medical Alert: Sexual Harassment in the Health Care Industry, International Journal of Public Administration 16 (1993): 1483-1499, D. Siegal, Sexual Harassment: Research and Resources. (New York, NY: National Council for Research on Women, 1991).
13. L. Grauerholz, "Sexual Harassment of Women Professors by Students: Exploring the Dynamics of Power, Authority, and Gender in a University Setting," Sex Roles 21 (1989): 789-801; E. Grauerholz, "Sexual Harassment in the Academy: The Case of Women Professors," in Sexual Harassment in the Workplace: Perspectives, Frontiers, and Response Strategies (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996) 29-50; J.E. Gruber, M. Smith and K. Kauppinen-Toropainen, "Sexual Harassment Types and Severity: Linking Research and Policy," in Sexual Harassment in the Workplace; Perspectives, Frontiers, and Response Strategies (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), 151-173. S.E. Martin, "Sexual Harassment: The Link Joining Gender Stratification, Sexuality, and Women's Economic Status," in Women: A Feminist Perspective (3rd ed.), ed. J. Freeman (Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield, 1989), 54-69; see also B.A. Gutek, Sex and the Workplace: The Impact of Sexual Behavior and Harassment on Men, Women and Organizations (San Francisco, Jossey-Bass 1985); D.E. Maypole, "Sexual Harassment of Social Workers at Work: Injustice Within?" Social Work 31 (1986): 29-34; B.R. Ragins, and T.A. Sandura, "Antecedents and Work-Related Correlates of Reported Sexual Harassment: An Empirical Investigation of Competing Hypotheses," Sex Roles 32 (1995): 429-455; C. G. Donald, and S. Merker, "Medical Alert: Sexual Harassment in the Health Care Industry, International Journal of Public Administration 16 (1993): 1483-1499, D. Siegal, Sexual Harassment: Research and Resources. (New York, NY: National Council for Research on Women, 1991).
14. L. Grauerholz, "Sexual Harassment of Women Professors by Students: Exploring the Dynamics of Power, Authority, and Gender in a University Setting," Sex Roles 21 (1989): 789-801; E. Grauerholz, "Sexual Harassment in the Academy: The Case of Women Professors," in Sexual Harassment in the Workplace: Perspectives, Frontiers, and Response Strategies (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996) 29-50; J.E. Gruber, M. Smith and K. Kauppinen-Toropainen, "Sexual Harassment Types and Severity: Linking Research and Policy," in Sexual Harassment in the Workplace; Perspectives, Frontiers, and Response Strategies (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), 151-173. S.E. Martin, "Sexual Harassment: The Link Joining Gender Stratification, Sexuality, and Women's Economic Status," in Women: A Feminist Perspective (3rd ed.), ed. J. Freeman (Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield, 1989), 54-69; see also B.A. Gutek, Sex and the Workplace: The Impact of Sexual Behavior and Harassment on Men, Women and Organizations (San Francisco, Jossey-Bass 1985); D.E. Maypole, "Sexual Harassment of Social Workers at Work: Injustice Within?" Social Work 31 (1986): 29-34; B.R. Ragins, and T.A. Sandura, "Antecedents and Work-Related Correlates of Reported Sexual Harassment: An Empirical Investigation of Competing Hypotheses," Sex Roles 32 (1995): 429-455; C. G. Donald, and S. Merker, "Medical Alert: Sexual Harassment in the Health Care Industry, International Journal of Public Administration 16 (1993): 1483-1499, D. Siegal, Sexual Harassment: Research and Resources. (New York, NY: National Council for Research on Women, 1991).
15. L. Grauerholz, "Sexual Harassment of Women Professors by Students: Exploring the Dynamics of Power, Authority, and Gender in a University Setting," Sex Roles 21 (1989): 789-801; E. Grauerholz, "Sexual Harassment in the Academy: The Case of Women Professors," in Sexual Harassment in the Workplace: Perspectives, Frontiers, and Response Strategies (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996) 29-50; J.E. Gruber, M. Smith and K. Kauppinen-Toropainen, "Sexual Harassment Types and Severity: Linking Research and Policy," in Sexual Harassment in the Workplace; Perspectives, Frontiers, and Response Strategies (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), 151-173. S.E. Martin, "Sexual Harassment: The Link Joining Gender Stratification, Sexuality, and Women's Economic Status," in Women: A Feminist Perspective (3rd ed.), ed. J. Freeman (Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield, 1989), 54-69; see also B.A. Gutek, Sex and the Workplace: The Impact of Sexual Behavior and Harassment on Men, Women and Organizations (San Francisco, Jossey-Bass 1985); D.E. Maypole, "Sexual Harassment of Social Workers at Work: Injustice Within?" Social Work 31 (1986): 29-34; B.R. Ragins, and T.A. Sandura, "Antecedents and Work-Related Correlates of Reported Sexual Harassment: An Empirical Investigation of Competing Hypotheses," Sex Roles 32 (1995): 429-455; C. G. Donald, and S. Merker, "Medical Alert: Sexual Harassment in the Health Care Industry, International Journal of Public Administration 16 (1993): 1483-1499, D. Siegal, Sexual Harassment: Research and Resources. (New York, NY: National Council for Research on Women, 1991).
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49. C. Colatosti, and E. Karg, Stopping Sexual Harassment; A Handbook for Union and Workplace Activists. (Detroit, MI: Labor Education and Research Project, 1991); N. DiTomaso, "Sexuality in the Workplace: Discrimination and Harassment, in The Sexuality of Organization, eds., J. Hearn, D. L. Sheppard, P. Tancred-Sheriff, and G. Burrell (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1991), 71-90; Paetzold & O'Leary-Kelly, "Implications of U.S. Supreme Court."
50. J.E. Gruber, and L. Bjorn, "Women's Responses to Sexual Harassment: An Analysis of Sociocultural, Organizational and Personal Resource Models," Social Science Quarterly, 129 (1986): 814-826; C. Hulin, L.F. Fitzgerald, and F. Drasgow. "Organizational Influences on Sexual Harassment," in Sexual Harassment in the Workplace; Perspectives, Frontiers, and Response Strategies, ed. M.S. Stockdale (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage 1996), 127-150; MacKinnon; "Sexual Harassment of Working Women" S. Riger, "Gender Dilemmas in Sexual Harassment Policies and Procedures," American Psychologist 46 (1991): 497-505.
51. J.E. Gruber, and L. Bjorn, "Women's Responses to Sexual Harassment: An Analysis of Sociocultural, Organizational and Personal Resource Models," Social Science Quarterly, 129 (1986): 814-826; C. Hulin, L.F. Fitzgerald, and F. Drasgow. "Organizational Influences on Sexual Harassment," in Sexual Harassment in the Workplace; Perspectives, Frontiers, and Response Strategies, ed. M.S. Stockdale (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage 1996), 127-150; MacKinnon; "Sexual Harassment of Working Women" S. Riger, "Gender Dilemmas in Sexual Harassment Policies and Procedures," American Psychologist 46 (1991): 497-505.
52. J.E. Gruber, and L. Bjorn, "Women's Responses to Sexual Harassment: An Analysis of Sociocultural, Organizational and Personal Resource Models," Social Science Quarterly, 129 (1986): 814-826; C. Hulin, L.F. Fitzgerald, and F. Drasgow. "Organizational Influences on Sexual Harassment," in Sexual Harassment in the Workplace; Perspectives, Frontiers, and Response Strategies, ed. M.S. Stockdale (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage 1996), 127-150; MacKinnon; "Sexual Harassment of Working Women" S. Riger, "Gender Dilemmas in Sexual Harassment Policies and Procedures," American Psychologist 46 (1991): 497-505.
53. J.E. Gruber, and L. Bjorn, "Women's Responses to Sexual Harassment: An Analysis of Sociocultural, Organizational and Personal Resource Models," Social Science Quarterly, 129 (1986): 814-826; C. Hulin, L.F. Fitzgerald, and F. Drasgow. "Organizational Influences on Sexual Harassment," in Sexual Harassment in the Workplace; Perspectives, Frontiers, and Response Strategies, ed. M.S. Stockdale (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage 1996), 127-150; MacKinnon; "Sexual Harassment of Working Women" S. Riger, "Gender Dilemmas in Sexual Harassment Policies and Procedures," American Psychologist 46 (1991): 497-505.
54. N.J. Malovich, and J.E. Stake, "Sexual Harassment on Campus: Individual Differences in Attitudes and Beliefs," Psychology of Women Quarterly 14 (1990): 63-81; M.S. Stockdale, and A. Vaux, "What Sexual Harassment Experiences Lead Respondents to Acknowledge Being Sexually Harassed? A Secondary Analysis of a University Study, Journal of Vocational Behavior 43 (1993): 221-234; F.E. Saal, "Men's Misperceptions of Women's Interpersonal Behaviors and Sexual Harassment," in Sexual Harassment in the Workplace; Perspectives, Frontiers, and Response Strategies, ed., M.S. Stockdale (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), 67-84; M.D. Thomas, "Gender Differences in Conceptualizing Sexual Harassment," NPRDC-TR-95-5, (San Diego, CA: Navy Personnel Research and Development Center, 1995).
55. N.J. Malovich, and J.E. Stake, "Sexual Harassment on Campus: Individual Differences in Attitudes and Beliefs," Psychology of Women Quarterly 14 (1990): 63-81; M.S. Stockdale, and A. Vaux, "What Sexual Harassment Experiences Lead Respondents to Acknowledge Being Sexually Harassed? A Secondary Analysis of a University Study, Journal of Vocational Behavior 43 (1993): 221-234; F.E. Saal, "Men's Misperceptions of Women's Interpersonal Behaviors and Sexual Harassment," in Sexual Harassment in the Workplace; Perspectives, Frontiers, and Response Strategies, ed., M.S. Stockdale (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), 67-84; M.D. Thomas, "Gender Differences in Conceptualizing Sexual Harassment," NPRDC-TR-95-5, (San Diego, CA: Navy Personnel Research and Development Center, 1995).
56. N.J. Malovich, and J.E. Stake, "Sexual Harassment on Campus: Individual Differences in Attitudes and Beliefs," Psychology of Women Quarterly 14 (1990): 63-81; M.S. Stockdale, and A. Vaux, "What Sexual Harassment Experiences Lead Respondents to Acknowledge Being Sexually Harassed? A Secondary Analysis of a University Study, Journal of Vocational Behavior 43 (1993): 221-234; F.E. Saal, "Men's Misperceptions of Women's Interpersonal Behaviors and Sexual Harassment," in Sexual Harassment in the Workplace; Perspectives, Frontiers, and Response Strategies, ed., M.S. Stockdale (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), 67-84; M.D. Thomas, "Gender Differences in Conceptualizing Sexual Harassment," NPRDC-TR-95-5, (San Diego, CA: Navy Personnel Research and Development Center, 1995).
57. N.J. Malovich, and J.E. Stake, "Sexual Harassment on Campus: Individual Differences in Attitudes and Beliefs," Psychology of Women Quarterly 14 (1990): 63-81; M.S. Stockdale, and A. Vaux, "What Sexual Harassment Experiences Lead Respondents to Acknowledge Being Sexually Harassed? A Secondary Analysis of a University Study, Journal of Vocational Behavior 43 (1993): 221-234; F.E. Saal, "Men's Misperceptions of Women's Interpersonal Behaviors and Sexual Harassment," in Sexual Harassment in the Workplace; Perspectives, Frontiers, and Response Strategies, ed., M.S. Stockdale (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), 67-84; M.D. Thomas, "Gender Differences in Conceptualizing Sexual Harassment," NPRDC-TR-95-5, (San Diego, CA: Navy Personnel Research and Development Center, 1995).
58. C.L. Williams, "Sexual Harassment in Organizations"; see also P.A. Giuffre, and C.L. Williams, "Boundary Lines: Labeling Sexual Harassment in Restaurants," Gender & Society, 8 (1994): 378-401.
59. C.L. Williams, "Sexual Harassment in Organizations"; see also P.A. Giuffre, and C.L. Williams, "Boundary Lines: Labeling Sexual Harassment in Restaurants," Gender & Society, 8 (1994): 378-401.
60. J.M. Firestone, and R.J. Harris, "Organizational Climate, Leadership and Individual Responses to Sexual Harassment in the Active Duty Military," Free Inquiry in Creative Sociology 25 (1997): 1-7; T.C. Fain, and D.L. Anderton, "Sexual Harassment: Organizational Context and Diffuse Status," Sex Roles 5 (1987): 291-311; J.A. Livingston, "Responses to Sexual Harassment on the Job: Legal, Organizational, and Individual Actions," Journal of Social Issues 38 (1982): 5-22; D.E. Terpstra, "A Framework for the Study of Sexual Harassment, Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 7 (1986); 17-34; Grauerholz, "Sexual Harassment of Women Professors,"; S. G. Bingham, and L.L. Scherer, "Factors Associated with Responses to Sexual Harassment and Satisfaction with Outcome," Sex Roles 29 (1993): 239-269; see also B. McAllister, "Harassment Case Took 5 Years to Resolve. The Washington Post, (1996, March 19); Thacker, "A Descriptive Study."
61. J.M. Firestone, and R.J. Harris, "Organizational Climate, Leadership and Individual Responses to Sexual Harassment in the Active Duty Military," Free Inquiry in Creative Sociology 25 (1997): 1-7; T.C. Fain, and D.L. Anderton, "Sexual Harassment: Organizational Context and Diffuse Status," Sex Roles 5 (1987): 291-311; J.A. Livingston, "Responses to Sexual Harassment on the Job: Legal, Organizational, and Individual Actions," Journal of Social Issues 38 (1982): 5-22; D.E. Terpstra, "A Framework for the Study of Sexual Harassment, Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 7 (1986); 17-34; Grauerholz, "Sexual Harassment of Women Professors,"; S. G. Bingham, and L.L. Scherer, "Factors Associated with Responses to Sexual Harassment and Satisfaction with Outcome," Sex Roles 29 (1993): 239-269; see also B. McAllister, "Harassment Case Took 5 Years to Resolve. The Washington Post, (1996, March 19); Thacker, "A Descriptive Study."
62. J.M. Firestone, and R.J. Harris, "Organizational Climate, Leadership and Individual Responses to Sexual Harassment in the Active Duty Military," Free Inquiry in Creative Sociology 25 (1997): 1-7; T.C. Fain, and D.L. Anderton, "Sexual Harassment: Organizational Context and Diffuse Status," Sex Roles 5 (1987): 291-311; J.A. Livingston, "Responses to Sexual Harassment on the Job: Legal, Organizational, and Individual Actions," Journal of Social Issues 38 (1982): 5-22; D.E. Terpstra, "A Framework for the Study of Sexual Harassment, Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 7 (1986); 17-34; Grauerholz, "Sexual Harassment of Women Professors,"; S. G. Bingham, and L.L. Scherer, "Factors Associated with Responses to Sexual Harassment and Satisfaction with Outcome," Sex Roles 29 (1993): 239-269; see also B. McAllister, "Harassment Case Took 5 Years to Resolve. The Washington Post, (1996, March 19); Thacker, "A Descriptive Study."
63. J.M. Firestone, and R.J. Harris, "Organizational Climate, Leadership and Individual Responses to Sexual Harassment in the Active Duty Military," Free Inquiry in Creative Sociology 25 (1997): 1-7; T.C. Fain, and D.L. Anderton, "Sexual Harassment: Organizational Context and Diffuse Status," Sex Roles 5 (1987): 291-311; J.A. Livingston, "Responses to Sexual Harassment on the Job: Legal, Organizational, and Individual Actions," Journal of Social Issues 38 (1982): 5-22; D.E. Terpstra, "A Framework for the Study of Sexual Harassment, Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 7 (1986); 17-34; Grauerholz, "Sexual Harassment of Women Professors,"; S. G. Bingham, and L.L. Scherer, "Factors Associated with Responses to Sexual Harassment and Satisfaction with Outcome," Sex Roles 29 (1993): 239-269; see also B. McAllister, "Harassment Case Took 5 Years to Resolve. The Washington Post, (1996, March 19); Thacker, "A Descriptive Study."
64. J.M. Firestone, and R.J. Harris, "Organizational Climate, Leadership and Individual Responses to Sexual Harassment in the Active Duty Military," Free Inquiry in Creative Sociology 25 (1997): 1-7; T.C. Fain, and D.L. Anderton, "Sexual Harassment: Organizational Context and Diffuse Status," Sex Roles 5 (1987): 291-311; J.A. Livingston, "Responses to Sexual Harassment on the Job: Legal, Organizational, and Individual Actions," Journal of Social Issues 38 (1982): 5-22; D.E. Terpstra, "A Framework for the Study of Sexual Harassment, Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 7 (1986); 17-34; Grauerholz, "Sexual Harassment of Women Professors,"; S. G. Bingham, and L.L. Scherer, "Factors Associated with Responses to Sexual Harassment and Satisfaction with Outcome," Sex Roles 29 (1993): 239-269; see also B. McAllister, "Harassment Case Took 5 Years to Resolve. The Washington Post, (1996, March 19); Thacker, "A Descriptive Study."
65. J.M. Firestone, and R.J. Harris, "Organizational Climate, Leadership and Individual Responses to Sexual Harassment in the Active Duty Military," Free Inquiry in Creative Sociology 25 (1997): 1-7; T.C. Fain, and D.L. Anderton, "Sexual Harassment: Organizational Context and Diffuse Status," Sex Roles 5 (1987): 291-311; J.A. Livingston, "Responses to Sexual Harassment on the Job: Legal, Organizational, and Individual Actions," Journal of Social Issues 38 (1982): 5-22; D.E. Terpstra, "A Framework for the Study of Sexual Harassment, Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 7 (1986); 17-34; Grauerholz, "Sexual Harassment of Women Professors,"; S. G. Bingham, and L.L. Scherer, "Factors Associated with Responses to Sexual Harassment and Satisfaction with Outcome," Sex Roles 29 (1993): 239-269; see also B. McAllister, "Harassment Case Took 5 Years to Resolve. The Washington Post, (1996, March 19); Thacker, "A Descriptive Study."
66. J.M. Firestone, and R.J. Harris, "Organizational Climate, Leadership and Individual Responses to Sexual Harassment in the Active Duty Military," Free Inquiry in Creative Sociology 25 (1997): 1-7; T.C. Fain, and D.L. Anderton, "Sexual Harassment: Organizational Context and Diffuse Status," Sex Roles 5 (1987): 291-311; J.A. Livingston, "Responses to Sexual Harassment on the Job: Legal, Organizational, and Individual Actions," Journal of Social Issues 38 (1982): 5-22; D.E. Terpstra, "A Framework for the Study of Sexual Harassment, Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 7 (1986); 17-34; Grauerholz, "Sexual Harassment of Women Professors,"; S. G. Bingham, and L.L. Scherer, "Factors Associated with Responses to Sexual Harassment and Satisfaction with Outcome," Sex Roles 29 (1993): 239-269; see also B. McAllister, "Harassment Case Took 5 Years to Resolve. The Washington Post, (1996, March 19); Thacker, "A Descriptive Study."
67. J.M. Firestone, and R.J. Harris, "Organizational Climate, Leadership and Individual Responses to Sexual Harassment in the Active Duty Military," Free Inquiry in Creative Sociology 25 (1997): 1-7; T.C. Fain, and D.L. Anderton, "Sexual Harassment: Organizational Context and Diffuse Status," Sex Roles 5 (1987): 291-311; J.A. Livingston, "Responses to Sexual Harassment on the Job: Legal, Organizational, and Individual Actions," Journal of Social Issues 38 (1982): 5-22; D.E. Terpstra, "A Framework for the Study of Sexual Harassment, Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 7 (1986); 17-34; Grauerholz, "Sexual Harassment of Women Professors,"; S. G. Bingham, and L.L. Scherer, "Factors Associated with Responses to Sexual Harassment and Satisfaction with Outcome," Sex Roles 29 (1993): 239-269; see also B. McAllister, "Harassment Case Took 5 Years to Resolve. The Washington Post, (1996, March 19); Thacker, "A Descriptive Study."
68. Harris and Firestone, "Subtle Sexism."
69. D.D. Baker, D.E. Terpstra, and J. Larntz, "The Influence of Individual Characteristics and Severity of Harassing Behavior on Reactions to Sexual Harassment. Sex Roles, 22 (1990): 305-325.
70. Harris and Firestone, "Subtle Sexism."
71. Bingham and Scherer, "Factors Associated with Responses." Thacker, "A Descriptive Study."
72. Bingham and Scherer, "Factors Associated with Responses." Thacker, "A Descriptive Study."
73. S.G. Bingham, "Communication Strategies for Managing Sexual Harassment in Organizations: Understanding Message Options and their Effects," Journal of Applied Communication Research 19 (1991): 88-115.
74. L.F. Fitzgerald, S. Swan, and K. Fischer, "Why Didn't She Just Report Him? The Psychological and Legal Implications of Women's Responses to Sexual Harassment." Journal of Social Issues 51 (1995): 117-138.
75. Firestone and Harris, "Organizational Climate."
76. Harris, and Firestone, "Subtle Sexism."
77. See for example, M.L. Patrow, and R. Patrow, "The Leathernecks: A Few Good Men . . . and Women," in Life in the Rank and File; Enlisted Men and Women in the Armed Forces of the United States, Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom, ed. D.R. Segal and H.W. Sinaiko (Washington, D.C.: Pergamon-Brassey's, 1986), 153-183; H. Rogan, Mixed Company; Women in the Modern Army (Boston: Beacon Press, 1981); D. Schneider, and C.J. Schneider, Sound Off! American Military Women Speak Out. (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1988); J. Steihm, Arms and the Enlisted Woman (Philadelphia: Temple University, 1989); J. Zimmerman, Tail Spin; Women at War in the Wake of Tailhook (New York: Doubleday, 1995).
78. See for example, M.L. Patrow, and R. Patrow, "The Leathernecks: A Few Good Men . . . and Women," in Life in the Rank and File; Enlisted Men and Women in the Armed Forces of the United States, Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom, ed. D.R. Segal and H.W. Sinaiko (Washington, D.C.: Pergamon-Brassey's, 1986), 153-183; H. Rogan, Mixed Company; Women in the Modern Army (Boston: Beacon Press, 1981); D. Schneider, and C.J. Schneider, Sound Off! American Military Women Speak Out. (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1988); J. Steihm, Arms and the Enlisted Woman (Philadelphia: Temple University, 1989); J. Zimmerman, Tail Spin; Women at War in the Wake of Tailhook (New York: Doubleday, 1995).
79. See for example, M.L. Patrow, and R. Patrow, "The Leathernecks: A Few Good Men . . . and Women," in Life in the Rank and File; Enlisted Men and Women in the Armed Forces of the United States, Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom, ed. D.R. Segal and H.W. Sinaiko (Washington, D.C.: Pergamon-Brassey's, 1986), 153-183; H. Rogan, Mixed Company; Women in the Modern Army (Boston: Beacon Press, 1981); D. Schneider, and C.J. Schneider, Sound Off! American Military Women Speak Out. (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1988); J. Steihm, Arms and the Enlisted Woman (Philadelphia: Temple University, 1989); J. Zimmerman, Tail Spin; Women at War in the Wake of Tailhook (New York: Doubleday, 1995).
80. See for example, M.L. Patrow, and R. Patrow, "The Leathernecks: A Few Good Men . . . and Women," in Life in the Rank and File; Enlisted Men and Women in the Armed Forces of the United States, Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom, ed. D.R. Segal and H.W. Sinaiko (Washington, D.C.: Pergamon-Brassey's, 1986), 153-183; H. Rogan, Mixed Company; Women in the Modern Army (Boston: Beacon Press, 1981); D. Schneider, and C.J. Schneider, Sound Off! American Military Women Speak Out. (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1988); J. Steihm, Arms and the Enlisted Woman (Philadelphia: Temple University, 1989); J. Zimmerman, Tail Spin; Women at War in the Wake of Tailhook (New York: Doubleday, 1995).
81. See for example, M.L. Patrow, and R. Patrow, "The Leathernecks: A Few Good Men . . . and Women," in Life in the Rank and File; Enlisted Men and Women in the Armed Forces of the United States, Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom, ed. D.R. Segal and H.W. Sinaiko (Washington, D.C.: Pergamon-Brassey's, 1986), 153-183; H. Rogan, Mixed Company; Women in the Modern Army (Boston: Beacon Press, 1981); D. Schneider, and C.J. Schneider, Sound Off! American Military Women Speak Out. (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1988); J. Steihm, Arms and the Enlisted Woman (Philadelphia: Temple University, 1989); J. Zimmerman, Tail Spin; Women at War in the Wake of Tailhook (New York: Doubleday, 1995).
82. Department of Defense, Report of the Task Force on Women in the Military (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1988).
83. M. Martindale, Sexual Harassment in the Military: 1988. (Arlington, VA, Defense Manpower Data Center, 1990); M. Martindale, "Sexual Harassment in the Military: 1988," Sociological Practice Review 2 (1991): 200-216; L.D. Bastian, A.R. Lancaster, Anita R. and H.E. Reyst, Department of Defense. 1995 Sexual Harassment Survey. (Arlington VA: Defense Manpower Data Center, 1995).
84. M. Martindale, Sexual Harassment in the Military: 1988. (Arlington, VA, Defense Manpower Data Center, 1990); M. Martindale, "Sexual Harassment in the Military: 1988," Sociological Practice Review 2 (1991): 200-216; L.D. Bastian, A.R. Lancaster, Anita R. and H.E. Reyst, Department of Defense. 1995 Sexual Harassment Survey. (Arlington VA: Defense Manpower Data Center, 1995).
85. M. Martindale, Sexual Harassment in the Military: 1988. (Arlington, VA, Defense Manpower Data Center, 1990); M. Martindale, "Sexual Harassment in the Military: 1988," Sociological Practice Review 2 (1991): 200-216; L.D. Bastian, A.R. Lancaster, Anita R. and H.E. Reyst, Department of Defense. 1995 Sexual Harassment Survey. (Arlington VA: Defense Manpower Data Center, 1995).
86. Bastian, Lancaster, and Reyst, 1995 Sexual Harassment Survey.
87. W.S. Cohen, Annual Report to the President and the Congress (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. (http://www.dtic.mil/execsec/adr97/index.html,1997).
88. This percentage varies considerably by service with a high of 97 percent substantiated by the Navy in 1995 and 39 percent confirmed by the Army in 1995.
89. Firestone and Harris, "Sexual Harassment."
90. Thus, the stratification process took into account the proportion of women with occupational groups.
91. In spite of intentions to replicate the 1988 survey using Form A of the 1995 survey, there are differences. Admirals and generals were included in the 1988 survey, but excluded in 1995. The 1988 sample excluded those respondents with missing data on variables used for stratification; the 1995 sample included them. In 1995, the surveys were sent to home addresses initially and then unit addresses if no response was received. In 1988, surveys were sent only to unit addresses. The 1995 survey included up to five follow-up attempts to improve response rates, whereas the 1988 survey used only one follow-up attempt. In 1988, the respondents mailed surveys to DMDC, and they were forwarded to a commercial firm for processing. In 1995, respondents mailed surveys directly to the commercial processing center. The impact of the differences between the two surveys is impossible to discern from other changes that might have occurred in the knowledge and experience base of the respondents to the surveys.
92. Firestone and Harris, "Sexual Harassment."
93. Results by service branch can be obtained from the authors.
94. Using the DoD survey data, individualistic forms of sexual harassment are identified that are frequently directly physical in nature and leave little room for misinterpretation by either the victim or the perpetrator, including: actual or attempted rape or sexual assault, unwanted, uninvited pressure for sexual favors, unwanted, uninvited touching, leaning over, cornering, pinching, or brushing against of a deliberately sexual nature, and unwanted, uninvited pressure for dates. This form can be differentiated from the broader category of environmental harassment that includes unwanted, uninvited sexually suggestive looks, gestures, or body language, unwanted, uninvited letters, telephone calls, or materials of a sexual nature, and unwanted, uninvited whistles, calls, hoots, or yells of a sexual nature. See Firestone and Harris, "Sexual Harassment."
95. Firestone and Harris, "Sexual Harassment."
96. Bastian, Lancaster, and Reyst, 1995 Sexual Harassment Survey.
97. Cohen, "Annual Report."
98. Unsubstantiated does not necessarily mean an unfair accusation, just that there was not enough evidence to substantiate the claim.
99. S.G. Bingham and L.L. Scherer, "Factors Associated with Responses"; Firestone and Harris, "Organizational Climate."; E. Grauerholz, "Sexual Harassment of Women Professors"; Livingston, "Responses to Sexual Harassment." Terpstra and Baker, "Framework."
100. S.G. Bingham and L.L. Scherer, "Factors Associated with Responses"; Firestone and Harris, "Organizational Climate."; E. Grauerholz, "Sexual Harassment of Women Professors"; Livingston, "Responses to Sexual Harassment." Terpstra and Baker, "Framework."
101. S.G. Bingham and L.L. Scherer, "Factors Associated with Responses"; Firestone and Harris, "Organizational Climate."; E. Grauerholz, "Sexual Harassment of Women Professors"; Livingston, "Responses to Sexual Harassment." Terpstra and Baker, "Framework."
102. S.G. Bingham and L.L. Scherer, "Factors Associated with Responses"; Firestone and Harris, "Organizational Climate."; E. Grauerholz, "Sexual Harassment of Women Professors"; Livingston, "Responses to Sexual Harassment." Terpstra and Baker, "Framework."
103. S.G. Bingham and L.L. Scherer, "Factors Associated with Responses"; Firestone and Harris, "Organizational Climate."; E. Grauerholz, "Sexual Harassment of Women Professors"; Livingston, "Responses to Sexual Harassment." Terpstra and Baker, "Framework."
104. See Firestone and Harris, "Organizational Climate,"; Harris and Firestone, "Subtle Sexism."
105. See Firestone and Harris, "Organizational Climate,"; Harris and Firestone, "Subtle Sexism."