Releasing prisoners, redeeming communities: Reentry, race, and politics

Releasing Prisoners, Redeeming Communities: Reentry, Race, and Politics

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 1-261

  Thompson, Anthony C ^a  

^a NEW YORK UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF LAW   (United States)

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EID: 84900245507     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Book

References (490)

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7. Kathlyn Taylor Gaubatz, Crime in the Public Mind 5-8 (Univ. of Mich. Press 1995).
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23. John J. Lieb & Claire Sterk-Elifson, Crack in the Cradle: Social Policy and Reproductive Rights among Crack-Using Females, 22 Contemp. Drug Probs. 687, 687-88 (1995).
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25. Jimmie L. Reeves & Richard C. Campbell, Cracked Coverage: Television News, the Anti-Cocaine Crusade, and the Reagan Legacy (Duke Univ. Press 1994).
26. William N. Elwood, Rhetoric in ihe War on Drugs: Triumphs and Tragedies of Public Relations 46-56 (Praeger 1994).
27. David Jernigan & Lori Dorfman, Visualizing America's Drug Problems:An Ethnographic Content Analysis of Illegal Drug Stories on the Nightly News, 23 Contemp. Drug Probs. 169, 192-93 (1996);
28. see also Steven R. Belenko, Crack and the Evolution of Anti-Drug Policy 30 (Greenwood Press 1993).
29. Tom Morganthau et al., Crack and Crime, Newsweek 16 (1986) reprinted in 132 Cong. Rec. 4418 (1986).
30. Leonard M. Baynes, White Out: The Absence and Stereotyping of People of Color by the Broadcast Networks in Prime Time Entertainment Programming, 45 Ariz. L. Rev. 293, 304 (2003).
31. Dorothy Roberts, Crime, Race, and Reproduction, 67 Tul. L. Rev. 1945, 1947 (1993).
32. Bias's death was widely attributed to a crack overdose, spurring Congress to enact a sentencing statute that imposed far higher mandatory penalties for trafficking in crack cocaine than for trafficking in powder cocaine. Postautopsy reports suggest Bias actually died of powder cocaine poisoning. Judge Louis F. Oberdorfer, Mandatory Sentencing: One Judge's Perspective-2002, 40 Am. Crim. L. Rev. 11, 16 (2003).
33. Graham Boyd, New Voices on the War on Drugs: Collateral Damage in the War on Drugs, 47 Vill. L. Rev. 839, 846-47 (2002); Just. Policy Inst., Cellblocks or Classrooms? The Funding of Higher Education and Corrections and its impact on African American Men (2002).
34. Stuart A. Scheingold, The Politics of Law and Order: Street Crime and Public Policy (Longman 1984);
35. Ted Chiricos, The Media, Moral Panics, and the Politics of Crime Control, in The Criminal Justice System:Politics and Policies (George F. Cole & Marc G. Gertz eds., 1998).
36. David Garland, Punishment and Modern Society: A Study in Social Theory (Univ. of Chicago Press 1990);
37. Ray Surette, News from Nowhere, Policy to Follow, in Three Strikes and You're Out: Vengeance as Public Policy (David Shichor & Dale Sechrist eds., 1996).
38. David Garland, The Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary Society 61-63 (Oxford Univ. Press 2001).
39. Anthony C. Thompson, It Takes a Community to Prosecute, 77 Notre Dame L. Rev. 321, 340 (2002);
40. Nat'l Ctr. on Insts. and Alternatives, The Real War on crime: The Report of the National Criminal Justice Commission 115 (Stephen R. Donziger ed., HarperPerennial 1996).
41. Robert Martinson, What Works? Questions and Answers about Prison Reform, 35 Pub. Int. 22, 25 (1974).
42. Gwen A. Holden et. al., U.S. Dep't of Just., Treatment Options for Drug-Dependent Offenders: A Review of the Literature for State and Local Decision Makers 32-33 (1990);
43. D. A. Andrews et al., Does Correctional Treatment Work? A Clinically Relevant and Psychologically Informed Meta-Analysis, 28 Criminology 369, 369 (1990).
44. Lawrence M. Friedman & George Fisher, Governing through Crime, in The Crime Conundrum: Essays in Justice 171 (Lawrence M. Friedman & George Fisher, eds., Westview Press 1997).
45. Maralee Schwartz & Lloyd Grove, TV Ads to Depict Gov. Dukakis as Coddling Criminals, Washington Post, Sept. 4, 1988, at A14.
46. Thomas B. Rosenstiel, Regional Advertising Proves Tough on Dukakis, L.A. Times, Oct. 28, 1988, at 16;
47. see Susan Estrich, The Politics of Race, Wash. Post, Apr. 23, 1989, at W20.
48. Craig Reinarman & Harry G. Levine, Crack in Context: Politics and Media in the Making of a Drug Scare, 16 Contemp. Drug Probs. 535, 556 (1989).
49. David A. Sklansky, Cocaine, Race, and Equal Protection, 47 Stan. L. Rev. 183 (1995).
50. Neil A. Lewis, Justice Department Opposes Lower Jail Terms for Crack, N.Y. Times, Mar. 20, 2002, at A24 (quoting U.S. Deputy Attorney General Larry D. Thompson).
51. Martin Finucane, Supreme Court Justice Says Judges Need More Flexibility, Wash. Post, Sept. 22, 2003. Justice Breyer, as a member of the first Sentencing Commission, is considered the justice with the deepest expertise in sentencing issues.
52. Mark Sauer, Drug Law Reform Campaign Flexes Its Muscles, San Diego Union Trib., Nov. 14, 2000, at E1;
53. Shadow Conventions: Rep. Maxine Waters Calls for Resignation of Drug Czar General Barry McCaffrey, U.S. Newswire, Aug. 15, 2000; U.S. Drug Laws Called Racist, Orlando Sentinel, Aug. 23, 2001, at A13.
54. Edward C. Banfield, The Unheavenly City: The Nature and Future of Our Urban Crisis 53-54 (Little, Brown 1970);
55. Gerald D. Suttles, Social Order of the Slum: Ethnicity and territory in the Inner City 3-12 (Univ. of Chicago Press 1968).
56. Thomas Byrne Edsall & Mary D. Edsall, Chain Reaction: The Impact of Race, Rights, and Taxes on American Politics 231 (Norton 1991).
57. Andrew Hacker, Two Nations, Black and White: Separate, Hostile, and Unequal 225 (Scribners 1992).
58. Thomas Byrne Edsall & Mary D. Edsall, Race, Atlantic Monthly, May 1991, at 53.
59. William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy 100-102 (Univ. of Chicago Press 1987).
60. Christopher Jencks & Paul E. Peterson, The Urban Underclass (Brookings Institution 1991);
61. Michael B. Katz, The Urban "Underclass" as a Metaphor of Social Transformation, in The "Underclass" Debate: Views from History 3 (Michael B. Katz ed., Princeton Univ. Press 1993).
62. Robert J. Sampson & Janet L. Lauritsen, Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Crime and Criminal Justice in the United States, 21 Crime & Just. 311, 338 (1997).
63. Ellis Cose, The Rage of a Privileged Class 107 (HarperCollins 1993).
64. Kent Greenawalt, Discrimination and reverse Discrimination 10-11 (Knopf 1983).
65. Bruce Western, The Impact of Incarceration on Wage Mobility and Inequality, 67 Am. Soc. Rev. 526 (2002).
66. Eric Rasmussen, Stigma and Self-Fulfilling Expectations of Criminality, 39 J. L. & Econ. 519, 540 (1996).
67. John Hagan & Ronit Dinovitzer, Collateral Consequences of Imprisonment for Children, Communities, and Prisoners in Prisons, 26 Crime & Just. 121, 136-37 (1999).
68. John H. Laub & Robert J. Sampson, Long-Term Effect of Punitive Discipline, in Coercion and Punishment in Long-Term Perspective 20 (Joan McCord ed., Cambridge Univ. Press 1995).
69. For a discussion of the consequences of stigma on families of prisoners, see Donald Braman, Families and Incarceration, in Invisible Punishment: The Collateral Consequences of Mass Imprisonment 129-34 (Marc Mauer & Meda Chesney-Lind eds., New Press 2002).
70. Todd Clear & Dina Rose, Incarceration, Reentry, and Social Capital: Social Networks in the Balance, in Prisoners Once Removed: The Impact of Incarceration and Reentry on Children, Families, and Communities 35 (Jeremy Travis & Michelle Waul eds., Urban Institute Press 2003).
71. Devah Pager, The Mark of a Criminal Record, 108 Am. J. Soc. 937 (2003).
72. Anthony C. Thompson, Stopping the Usual Suspects: Race and the Fourth Amendment, 74 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 956, 983 (1999).
73. Renato Tagiuri, Person Perception, in The Handbook of Social Psychology 395, 422 (Gardner Linzey & Elliot Aronson eds., 2d ed. 1969).
74. John R. Anderson, Cognitive Psychology and its Implications 132-33 (W.H. Freeman 1980).
75. Mary Ellen Goodman, Race Awareness in Young Children 19-21 (Addison-Wesley Press 1952);
76. see also William A. Barnard & Mark S. Benn, Belief Congruence and Prejudice Reduction in an Interracial Contact Setting, 128 J. Soc. Psych. 125, 126 (1988).
77. Shelley E. Taylor, A Categorization Approach to Stereotyping, in Cognitive Processes in Stereotyping and Intergroup Behavior 83, 84-86 (David Hamilton ed., L. Erlbaum Associates 1981).
78. Gordon W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice 23 (Addison-Wesley 1954).
79. Anthony G. Amsterdam & Jerome S. Bruner, Minding the Law 13 (Harvard Univ. Press 2000).
80. Susan T. Fiske & Shelley E. Taylor, Social Cognition 98 (McGraw-Hill 2d ed. 1991);
81. Hazel Markus, Self-Schemata and Processing Information about the Self, 35 J. Personality and Soc. Psych 63 (1977).
82. Social comparison and social identity describe the process of comparing one's own group. Michael A. Hogg, The Social Psychology of Group Cohesiveness: From Attraction to Social Identity 90 (N.Y.U. Press 1992).
83. Self-esteem maintenance, also known as ego maintenance, occurs when an actor's discrimination itself enhances the actor's own ego. See James Sidanius et al., A Comparison of Symbolic Racism Theory and Social Dominance Theory:Explanations for Racial Policy Attitudes, 132 J. Soc. Psych. 377, 380 (1992).
84. Jody D. Armour, Race Ipsa Loquitur: Of Reasonable Racists, Intelligent Bayesians, and Involuntary Negrophobes, 46 Stan. L. Rev. 781, 787 (1994).
85. Desiree A. Kennedy, Consumer Discrimination: The Limitations of Federal Civil Rights Protection, 66 Mo. L. Rev. 275 (2001).
86. Edwin H. Sutherland, White-Collar Criminality, 5 Am. Soc. Rev. 1, 1 (1940) (discussing crimes committed by those in upper- or white-collar class versus crimes committed by those in lower classes).
87. Edwin H. Sutherland, Is "White-Collar Crime" Crime?, 10 Am. Soc. Rev. 132, 137-39 (1945).
88. Elizabeth Szockyj, Imprisoning White-Collar Criminals?, 23 S. Ill. U. L.J. 485, 486-87 (1999) (noting that not only do definitions of "white-collar crime" vary, but harm inflicted by white-collar crime varies as well in that it may be financial, physical, or social).
89. Stanton Wheeler et al., Sitting in Judgment: The Sentencing of White-Collar Criminals (Yale Univ. Press 1988).
90. Michelle S. Jacobs, Loyalty's Reward: A Felony Conviction: Recent Prosecutions of High-Status Female Offenders, 33 Fordham Urb. L.J. 843, 857 (2006).
91. Greg Farrell, Fastow's Wife Gets Reduced Charge; Will Plead Guilty to Misdemeanor, USA Today, Apr. 30, 2004, at B1 (comments by Columbia University securities expert Jack Coffee), available at 2004 WLNR 6243138.
92. Tania Ralli, Who's a Looter? In Storm's Aftermath, Pictures Kick Up a Different Kind of Tempest, N.Y. Times, September 5, 2005, at C6.
93. George Gerbner & Larry Gross, The Scary World of TV's Heavy Viewer, Psychol. Today, April 1976, at 89.
94. George Gerbner, The Killing Screens: Media and the Culture of Violence (Media Education Foundation 1994);
95. J. M. Hough & Julian Roberts, Attitudes to Punishment: Findings from the British Crime Survey 179 (Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Directorate 1998).
96. P. T. Bryant & E. Morris, What Does the Public Really Think?, 60 Corrections Today 26, 26-79 (1998).
97. Sarah Eschholz, Brenda Sims Blackwell, Marc Gertz, & Ted Chiricos, Race and Attitudes toward the Police: Assessing the Effects of Watching "Reality" Police Programs, 30 J. Crim. Just. 327, 328 (2002).
98. Gray Cavender & Lisa Bond-Maupin, Fear and Loathing on Reality Television:An Analysis of America's Most Wanted and Unsolved Mysteries, 63 Soc. Inquiry, 305-17 (1993).
99. P. Kooistra, J. Mahoney, & S. Westervelt, The World of Crime according to Cops, in Entertaining Crime 141-58 (M. Fishman & G. Cavender eds. Aldine De Gruyter 1988).
100. Kathleen Daly, Celebrated Crime Cases and the Public's Imagination:From Bad Press to Bad Policy?, 28 Austl. & N.Z. J. Criminology 6 (1995).
101. Michael Welch, Lisa Weber, & Walter Edwards, "All the News That's Fit to Print": A Content Analysis of the Correctional Debate in the New York Times, 80 Prison J. 245, 245-64 (2000).
102. Richard V. Ericson et al., Representing Order: Crime, Law, and Justice in the News Media 244-47 (Univ. of Toronto Press 1991) (discussing a study showing that stories about violence against the person constitute at least one-third of popular newspaper, television, and radio stories);
103. Philip Schlesinger & Howard Tumber, Reporting Crime: The Media Politics of Criminal Justice 140 (1994).
104. Franklin Gilliam Jr., S. Iyengar, A. Simon, & O. Wright, Crime in Black and White: The Violent, Scary World of Local News 1 3 Harv. Int'l J. of Press/Politics 6, 6-23 (1996).
105. Robert Entman, Blacks in the News: Television, Modern Racism, and Cultural Change, 69 Journalism Q. 341 (1992).
106. Julian V. Roberts & Loretta J. Stalans, Public Opinion, Crime, and Criminal Justice (Westview Press 1997).
107. Stephen King, Rita Hayworth and the Shawshank Redemption, in Different Seasons 1 (Viking Press 1982).
108. Roger Ebert, Review of The Shawshank Redemption, Chicago Sun-Times, Oct. 17, 1999, at 5 ("Behind bars, Red is king. He's the prison fixer, able to get you a pack of cigarettes, a little rock pick or a Rita Hayworth poster. On the outside, he has no status or identity. We've already seen what happened to the old librarian (James Whitmore), lonely and adrift in freedom.").
109. Janet Maslin, Film Review: Prison Tale by Stephen King Told Gently, Believe It or Not, N.Y. Times, Sept. 23, 1994, at C3.
110. Gary Levin, The Inside Story on HBO's Oz. True to Form, Its Final Season Won't Be Pretty, Either, USA Today, Jan. 2, 2003, at 8D.
111. D. Gibbons, Who Knows What about Corrections?, 9 Crime and Delinquency 137, 137-44 (1963).
112. Alexis Miller, Richard Tewksbury, & Christopher Hensley, College Students' Perceptions of Crime, Prison, and Prisoners, 17 Crim. Just. Stud. J. 311, 314 (2004).
113. B. Applegate, Penal Austerity: Perceived Utility, Desert, and Public Attitudes toward Prison Amenities, 25 Am. J. of Crim. Just. 253-68 (2001).
114. Steve Farkas, Pennsylvanians Prefer Alternatives to Prison, in Sentencing Reform in Overcrowded Times: A Comparative Perspective (Michael H. Tonry & Kathleen Hatlestad eds., Oxford Univ. Press 1997).
115. Francis T. Cullen, Bonnie S. Fisher, & Brandon K. Applegate, Public Opinion about Punishment and Corrections, 27 Crime & Just. 1, 31 (2000);
116. Doble Research Assocs., Crime and Corrections: The Views of the People of New Hampshire (Doble Research Assocs. 1998).
117. Doble Research Associates, Crime and Corrections: The Views of the People of North Carolina (Doble Research Assocs. 1995).
118. Benjamin D. Steiner, William J. Bowers, & Austin Sarat, Folk Knowledge as Legal Action: Death Penalty Judgments and the Tenet of Early Release in a Culture of Mistrust and Punitiveness, 33 Law & Soc'y Rev. 461 (1999);
119. see also Stephen P. Garvey, Sheri Lynn Johnson, & Paul Marcus, Correcting Deadly Confusion: Responding to Jury Inquiries in Capital Cases, 85 Cornell L. Rev. 627 (2000).
120. Julian V. Roberts & Anthony N. Doob, News Media Influences on Public Views of Sentencing, 14 Law & Hum. Behav. 451, 454 (1990) (giving examples of several studies demonstrating the public's misconceptions regarding prison sentencing and parole);
121. Tom R. Tyler, Public Mistrust of the Law: A Political Perspective, 66 U. Cin. L. Rev. 847, 849 (1998) (analyzing dissatisfaction with the criminal justice system based on a widespread belief that sentences are too lenient).
122. David C. Anderson, Crime and the Politics of Hysteria: How the Willie Horton Story Changed American Justice 217 (Times Books 1995).
123. Tali Mendelberg, The Race Card: Campaign Strategy, Implicit Messages, and the Norm of Equality 178 (Princeton Univ. Press 2001).
124. Charles E. Lindblom & David K. Cohen, Usable Knowledge: Social Science and Social Problem Solving (Yale Univ. Press 1979).
125. Howard Kurtz, A Guilty Verdict on Crime, Race Bias: TV Viewers Often Assume Suspects Are Black, Wash. Post, Apr. 28, 1997, at C1 (defining the assumption whereby Whites "automatically associate a crime story with a non-White guy").
126. Andrew Hacker, Two Nations: Black and White, Separate, Hostile, and Unequal 181 (Scribners 1992).
127. Martin Gilens, Race and Poverty in America: Public Misperceptions and the American News Media, 60 Pub. Opinion Q. 515, 516, 520, 527, 531 (1996);
128. Marlene Cimons, Myths Color Views on Who Receives Aid, Chicago Sun-Times, Jan. 29, 1995, at 24 (opining that most Americans believe that the average AFDC recipient is a Black female when in reality it is a rural White person).
129. Franklin D. Gilliam Jr. et al., Crime in Black and White: The Violent, Scary World of Local News, 1 Harv. Int'l J. Press/Pol. 6, 8 (1996);
130. Lori Dorfman & Vincent Schiraldi, Off Balance: Youth, Race, and Crime in the News, Apr. 10, 2004, available at http://www.buildingblocksforyouth.org.
131. Reid Hastie & Robyn M. Dawes, Rational Choice in an Uncertain World: The Psychology of Judgment and Decision Making 80-81 (Sage 2001).
132. Meda Chesney-Lind, Girls in Gangs: Violent Equality or Media Hype, Extra!, Mar.-Apr. 1994, at 12.
133. Lori Dorfman & Vincent Schiraldi, Off Balance: Youth, Race, & Crime in the News, J. Policy Inst., available at http://www.buildingblocksforyouth.org.
134. Barry C. Feld, The Transformation of the Juvenile Court, Part II: Race and the "Crack Down" on Youth Crime, 84 Minn. L. Rev. 327, 345, 361 (1999).
135. T. J. Banes, "Female Offenders Get Touch of Home," Indianapolis Star, June 21, 2004, at 1B.
136. Tina Greigo, Women Seize Hope from Miracles, Rocky Mountain News, July 3, 2004, at 6A, available at 2004 WLNR 1259171.
137. Monica Pa, Towards a Feminist Theory of Violence, 9 U. Chi. L. Sch. Roundtable 45, 45-48 (2002).[0]
138. Myrna S. Raeder, Gender and Sentencing: Single Moms, Battered Women, and Other Sex-Based Anomalies in the Gender-Free World of the Federal Sentencing Guidelines, 20 Pepp. L. Rev. 905, 922-24 (1993) (citing Meda Chesney-Lind, Patriarchy, Prisons, and Jails: A Critical Look at Trends in Women's Incarceration, 71 Prison J. 51, 57-58 (1991).
139. Leslie Acoca & Myrna S. Raeder, Severing Family Ties: The Plight of Nonviolent Female Offenders and Their Children, 11 Stan. L. & Policy Rev. 133, 134 (1999).
140. U.S. Census Bureau, History of Poverty Tables: Poverty of People by Sex, 1966 to 2003, tbl.7, available at http://www.census.gov.
141. U.S. Census Bureau, History of Poverty Tables: Poverty Status of People, by Ages, Race, and Hispanic Origin, 1959 to 2003, tbl.3, available at http://www.census.gov.
142. Joan Petersilia, When Prisoners Come Home: Parole and Prisoner Reentry 26 (Oxford Univ. Press 2003).
143. Meda Chesney-Lind, Critical Criminology: Toward a Feminist Praxis, available at http://critcrim.org.
144. Clarice D. Feinman, Women in the Criminal Justice System 28 (2d ed. 1986).
145. Matthew Zingraff & Randall Thomson, Differential Sentencing of Women and Men in the U.S.A., 12 Int'l J. Soc. L. 401, 410 (1984).
146. Boni Brewer, Incarceration of Pregnant Women Doubles at Jail, Valley Times, June 17, 1990, at A1.
147. Nicole S. Mauskopf, Note: Reaching beyond the Bars: An Analysis of Prison Nurseries, 5 Cardozo Women's L.J. 102 (1998).
148. Adrian Nicole LeBlanc, Random Family: Love, Drugs, Trouble, and Coming of Age in the Bronx 118-19 (Scribners 2003).
149. Eda Katherine Tinto, The Role of Gender and Relationship in Reforming the Rockefeller Drug Laws, 76 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 906 (2001).
150. Shimica Gaskins, "Women of Circumstance": The Effects of Mandatory Minimum Sentencing on Women Minimally Involved in Drug Crimes, 41 Am. Crim. L. Rev. 1533, 1534 (2004).
151. Stephanie R. Bush Baskette, The War on Drugs as a War against Black Women, in Crime Control and Women: Feminist Implications of Criminal Justice Policy 113 (Susan Miller ed., Sage Publications 1998).
152. Joan Petersilia, When Prisoners Come Home: Parole and Prisoner Reentry 49 (Oxford Univ. Press 2003).
153. Christopher J. Mumola, Incarcerated Parents and their Children 1 (U.S. Dep't of Just., Office of Just. Programs, Bureau of Just. Stats. 2000), reprinted in Amy E. Hirsch, Every Door Closed: Barriers Facing Parents with Criminal Records (Community Legal Services 2002).
154. Dorothy Roberts, Shattered Bonds: The Color of Child Welfare 206 (Basic Books 2002).
155. Nicole S. Mauskopf, Note: Reaching beyond the Bars: An Analysis of Prison Nurseries, 5 Cardozo Women's L.J. 101, 112 (1998).
156. Susan C. Boyd, Mothers and Illicit Drugs: Transcending the Myths (Univ. of Toronto Press 1999) (arguing that female drug users are being unfairly demonized).
157. Susan Vivian Mangold, Challenging the Parent-Child-State Triangle in Public Family Law: The Importance of Private Providers in the Dependency System, 47 Buff. L. Rev. 1397, 1436 (1999).
158. Regina Austin, "The Black Community," Its Lawbreakers, and a Politics of Identification, 65 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1769, 1791 (1992).
159. Kim A. Hull et al., Analysis of Recidivism Rates for Participants of the Academic/Vocational/Transition Education Programs Offered by the Virginia Department of Correctional Education, 51 J. Correctional Educ. 256, 256-61 (2000).
160. Lawrence A. Greenfield & Stephanie Minor-Harper, Women in Prison 6 (U.S. Dep't. of Just., Office of Just. Programs, Bureau of Just. Stats. 1991).
161. Heidi Rosenberg, California's Incarcerated Mothers: Legal Roadblocks to Reunification, 30 Golden Gate L. Rev. 285, 314 (2000).
162. Kara Stinson, Letting Time Serve You: Boot Camps and Alternative Sentencing for Female Offenders, 39 Brandeis L.J. 847, 855 (2001).
163. Amanda Ripley, Outside the Gates, Time, Jan. 21, 2002, at 56.
164. Elijah Anderson, Streetwise: Race, Class, and Change in an Urban Community 86-87 (Univ. of Chicago Press 1990).
165. Paula A. Franzese, Housing and Hope: The Crisis in Homelessness, Dis- crimination in Housing, and an Agenda for Landlord/Tenant Reform, 29 Seton Hall Rev. 1461, 1461 (1999) (discussing two million figure); National Law Center for Homelessness & Poverty, Homelessness and Poverty in America, available at http://www.nlchp.org.
166. Jonathon Kozol, Rachel and her Children: Homeless Families in America 11 (Ballantine Books 1988) ("Any poor family paying rent or mortgage that exceeds one half of monthly income is in serious danger [of eviction].").
167. Michael H. Schill & Susan M. Wachter, The Spatial Bias of Federal Housing Law and Policy: Concentrated Poverty in Urban America, 143 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1285 (1995).
168. John Atlas & Peter Dreier, From "Projects" to Communities: Redeeming Public Housing, J. Housing, Jan.-Feb. 1993, at 21.
169. According to a study published in the Journal of Urban Affairs in 1999, 29 percent of African Americans live below the poverty level, while only 8 percent of Whites do. See Robert M. Adelman & Charles Jaret, Poverty, Race, and the U.S. Metropolitan Social and Economic Structure, 21 J. Urb. Aff. 35, 44 (1999).
170. Florence Wagman Roisman, Intentional Racial Discrimination and Segregation by the Federal Government as a Principal Cause of Concentrated Poverty:A Response to Schill and Wachter, 143 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1351, 1358 (1995).
171. Michael H. Schill, Distressed Public Housing: Where Do We Go from Here?, 60 U. Chi. L. Rev. 497, 504-17 (1993) (describing historical patterns of discrimination in setting of public housing).
172. Douglas S. Massey & Nancy A. Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass 77 (Harvard Univ. Press 1993).
173. Nancy A. Denton, Are African Americans Still Hypersegregated?, in Residential Apartheid: The American Legacy 74 (Robert D. Bullard et al. eds., CAAS Publications 1994).
174. John O. Calmore, Race/ism Lost and Found: The Fair Housing Act at Thirty, 52 U. Miami L. Rev. 1067, 1113 (1998).
175. Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (Cambridge Univ. Press 1983);
176. David L. Kirp et. al., Our Town: Race Housing and the Soul of Suburbia (Rutgers Univ. Press 1995);
177. Sudhir Alladi Venkatesh, American Project: The Rise and Fall of a Modern Ghetto (Harvard Univ. Press 2000) (examining Chicago's Robert Taylor Homes).
178. Peter Kivisto, Changes in Public Housing Policies and Their Impacts on Minorities, in Race, Ethnicity, and Minority Housing in the United States 3 (Jamshid A. Momeni ed., Greenwood Press 1986).
179. Housing Act, Pub. L. No. 81 171, 63 Stat. 413 (1949) (codified as amended as 42 U.S.C. § 1441 [1994]).
180. Rachel G. Bratt, Public Housing: The Controversy and the Contribution, in Critical Perspectives on Housing 335 (Rachel G. Bratt et al. eds., Temple Univ. Press 1986).
181. R. Allen Hays, The Federal Government and Urban Housing: Ideology and Change in Public Policy 96-97 (State Univ. of N.Y. Press, 2d ed. 1995).
182. Daniel Roland Fusfeld & Timothy Mason Bates, The Political Economy of the Urban Ghetto 45-66 (Southern Ill. Univ. Press 1984).
183. Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States 190-245 (Oxford Univ. Press 1985).
184. Irving H. Welfeld, Where We Live: The American Home and the Social, Political, and Economic Landscape from Slums to Suburbs 191 (Simon & Schuster 1988).
185. Lawrence J. Vale, Destigmatizing Public Housing, in Geography and Identity: Living and Exploring the Geopolitics of Identity 439 (Dennis Crow ed., Maisonneuve Press 1996).
186. Mark L. Matulef, This Is Public Housing, J. Housing, Sept.-Oct. 1987, at 175, 176.
187. Donald MacDonald, Democratic Architecture: Practical Solutions to Today's Housing Crisis 17-18 (Whitney Library of Design 1996).
188. The term came into popular use in Ronald Reagan's presidential campaign speeches, in which he told the story of a Cadillac-driving Chicago welfare queen who was collecting dozens of welfare checks under different names. Robert Friedman, Sorry, We Have No Time for Apologies, St. Petersburg Times, June 26, 1988, at 5D.
189. It is the image of the " lazy welfare mother who breeds children at the expense of the taxpayers in order to increase the amount of her welfare check" that is used to sell programs to the public that will adversely affect women. David T. Ellwood & Mary Jo Bane, Understanding Welfare Dynamics, inWelfare Realities: From Rhetoric to Reform 28, 45 (David T. Ellwood & Mary Jo Bane eds., Harvard Univ. Press 1994).
190. Paige M. Harrison & Allen J. Beck, Bulletin: Prisoners in 2001 (U.S. Dep't of Just., Bureau of Just. Stats. 2002) (reporting that 10 percent of African American men, ages 25-29, are incarcerated).
191. President William J. Clinton, State of the Union Address (Jan. 23, 1996).
192. Rucker v. Davis, Not Reported in F. Supp., 1998 WL 345403 (N.D. Cal. June 19, 1998) (NO. C 98-00781 CRB).
193. Dep't of Hous. and Urban Dev. v. Rucker, 535 U.S. 125, 135 (2002).
194. Legal Action Ctr., Housing Laws Affecting Individuals with Criminal Convictions (2000) [hereinafter Legal Action Ctr., Housing Laws], available at http: //www.lac.org/pubs/gratis/housing_laws.pdf (last visited July 29, 2007).
195. Carl Horowitz, Housing Rights versus Property Rights, Heritage Foundation Reports: The Heritage Lectures No. 312 at 8 (Apr. 3, 1991).
196. Peter Henry Rossi, Down and Out in America: The Origins of Homelessness 8-10 (Univ. of Chicago Press 1989);
197. Kenneth M. Chackes, Sheltering the Homeless: Judicial Enforcement of Governmental Duties to the Poor, 31 J. Urb. & Contemp. L. 155, 155-56 (1987).
198. Robert Hayes, Litigating on Behalf of Shelter for the Poor, 22 Harv. C.R.-C.L. L. Rev. 79, 83-85 (1987).
199. Jeremy Travis, Amy L. Solomon, & Michelle Waul, From Prison to Home: The Dimensions and Consequences of Prisoner Reentry 35-36 (The Urban Institute 2001) [0](discussing difficulties ex-offenders face finding suitable housing when they are released from prison).
200. Center for Housing Policy, The Housing Needs of Ex-Prisoners (1996), available at http: //www.jrf.org.uk.
201. Steven R. Paisner, Compassion, Politics, and the Problems Lying on Our Sidewalks: A Legislative Approach for Cities to Address Homelessness, 67 Temp. L. Rev. 1259, 1271-73 (1994) (summarizing interests and concerns of city and its inhabitants in the context of homelessness).
202. Evelyn Nieves, In Famously Tolerant City, Impatience with Homeless, N.Y. Times, Jan. 18, 2002, at A14 (describing hard-line approaches of New York, San Francisco, and other cities).
203. National Coalition for the Homeless, Illegal to Be Homeless: The Criminalization of Homelessness in the United States (2002), available at http: //www.nationalhomeless.org.
204. Lorne Sossin, The Criminalization and Administration of the Homeless: Notes on the Possibilities and Limits of Bureaucratic Engagement, 22 N.Y.U. Rev. L. & Soc. Change 623, 638-39, 647 (1996).
205. Fair Housing Act, Pub. L. No. 90 284, 82 Stat. 81 (1968) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. § § 3601-3631 (1994)).
206. Prior to the 1988 amendments, the act lacked the necessary enforcement provisions to effect real change in the behavior of those responsible for housing discrimination. See James Kushner, The Fair Housing Amendments Act of 1988: The Second Generation of Fair Housing, 42 Vand. L. Rev. 1049, 1050 (1989).
207. 392 U.S. 409 (1968).
208. Civil Rights Act, 14 Stat. 27 (1866) (codified at 42 U.S.C. § 1982 [1994]) (providing that all citizens have same right enjoyed by Whites to inherit, purchase, lease, sell, hold, and convey real and personal property). As a result of the decision in Jones, this provision does not require state action.
209. Margery Austin Turner & Ron Wienk, The Persistence of Segregation in Urban Areas: Contributing Causes, in Housing Markets and Residential Mobility 193, 199 (G. Thomas Kingsley & Margery Austin Turner eds., Urban Inst. Press 1993).
210. Jody David Armour, Affirmative Action: Diversity of Opinions: Hype and Reality in Affirmative Action, 68 U. Colo. L. Rev. 1173, 1177-78 (1997).
211. Gary Orfield, Housing and the Justification of School Segregation, 143 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1397, 1401 (1995);
212. Robert D. Bullard, Environmental Racism and " Invisible" Communities, 96 W. Va. L. Rev. 1037, 1042 (1994) (discusses housing and environmental hazards);
213. William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy 42 (Univ. of Chicago Press 1987).
214. Ronald E. Wienk, Measuring Racial Discrimination in American Housing Markets: The Housing Market Practices Survey (U.S. Dep't of Housing and Urban Dev., Office of Pol'y Dev. and Research 1979) (offering extensive investigation of forty major urban areas documenting racial discrimination in housing patterns).
215. Margery Austin Turner et al., HUD Housing Discrimination Study: Synthesis 11, 28 (U.S. Dep't of Housing and Urban Dev., Office of Pol'y Dev. and Research 1991).
216. Joe R. Feagin, Excluding Blacks and Others from Housing: The Foun-dation of White Racism, 82 Cityscape: J. Pol'y Dev. 79 (1999) (discussing sociological effects of segregation during the demographic shifts).
217. Michael H. Schill, Local Enforcement of Laws Prohibiting Discrimination in Housing: The New York City Human Rights Commission, 23 Fordham Urb. L.J. 991 (1996) (discussing other aspects of housing discrimination, such as discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation, familial status, and physical capabilities).
218. According to 2000 census data, in U.S. metropolitan areas as a whole, 65 percent of Blacks would have to move to attain a uniform racial residential distribution. Lewis Mumford Ctr., Ethnic Diversity Grows, Neighborhood Integration Lags Behind 1-2, 5 (2001), available at http: //mumford1 .dyndns.org/cen2000/WholePop/WPreport/MumfordReport.pdf (last visited July 29, 2007).
219. Jeffrey Rosen, Bus Stop: The Lost Promise of School Integration, N.Y. Times, Apr. 2, 2000, § 4, at 1.
220. Brown v. Bd. of Educ., 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
221. Harry J. Holzer & Keith R. Ihlanfeldt, Spatial Factors and the Employment of Blacks at the Firm Level, New Eng. Econ. Rev., May-June 1996, at 65.
222. Timothy Bates, Banking on Black Enterprise: The Potential of Emerging Firms for Revitalizing Urban Economies 140 (Joint Ctr. for Political and Economic Studies 1993).
223. Donald Tomakovic Devey, Gender and Racial Inequality at Work: The Sources and Consequences of Job Segregation 24 (ILR Press 1993).
224. John Kain, The Spatial Mismatch Hypothesis: Three Decades Later, 3 Housing Pol'y Debate 371 (1992);
225. Michael Fix et al., An Overview of Auditing for Discrimination, in Clear and Convincing Evidence: Measurement of Discrimination in America 1, 18-25 (Michael Fix & Raymond J. Struyk eds., Urban Inst. Press 1994);
226. The Meaning of Race for Employers, in The Urban Underclass 203, 209-13 (Christopher Jencks & Paul Peterson eds., Brookings Inst. 1991).
227. 42 U.S.C. § § 3601-3619, 3631 (1988 & Supp. V 1993) (prohibiting discrimination in the sale or rental of housing). Additional laws prohibiting discrimination are § 1982 of the Civil Rights Act of 1866, 42 U.S.C. § 1982 (1988), and the Equal Credit Opportunity Act, 15 U.S.C. § 1691 (1988 & Supp. V 1993) (prohibiting discrimination in credit transactions).
228. Immediately after the enactment of the 1968 legislation, the Department of Justice established a section within the Civil Rights Division that was in charge of enforcing the act.
229. See Gary Orfield, Housing and the Justification of School Segregation, 143 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1397, 1404 (1995).
230. Herman Joseph & John Langrod, The Homeless, in Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook 1141 (Joyce H. Lowinson et al. eds., Lippincott Williams & Wilkins 2005).
231. Olinda Moyd, Mental Health and Incarceration: What a Bad Combination, 7 U.D.C. L. Rev. 201, 210-11 (2003).
232. 429 U.S. 97 (1976).
233. 501 U.S. 294 (1991).
234. 511 U.S. 825 (1994).
235. Inmates of Allegheny County Jail, 612 F.2d 754, 763 (3d Cir. 1979);
236. Bowring v. Godwin, 551 F.2d 44, 47 (1977);
237. see also Newman v. Alabama, 503 F.2d 1120 (5th Cir. 1974), cert. denied, 421 U.S. 948 (1975) (criticizing the Alabama penal system for failing to employ mental health professionals to provide treatment to inmates).
238. Fred Cohen, Captives' Legal Right to Mental Health Care, 17 L. & Psychol. Rev. 1, 39 (1993).
239. E. F. Torrey, Jails and Prisons: America's New Mental Hospitals, 85 Am. J. Pub. Health 1611, 1611-13 (1995).
240. Paula M. Ditton, U.S. Dep't of Just., Mental Health and Treatment of Inmates and Probationers (1999);
241. Richard L. Elliot, Evaluating the Quality of Correctional Mental Health Services: An Approach to Surveying a Correctional Mental Health System, 15 Behavioral Sci. L. 427, 427-39 (1997).
242. Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring Program, U.S. Dept of Just., 1999 Annual Report on Drug Use among Adult and Juvenile Arrestees 9 (2000), available at http: //www.ncjrs.org.
243. Christopher J. Mumola, Incarcerated Parents and Their Children, August 2000, NCJ 182335, available at www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/iptc.htm.
244. Harry K. Wexler et al., Outcome Evaluation of a Prison Therapeutic Community for Substance Abuse Treatment, 17 Crim. Just. & Behav. 71, 72 (1990).
245. Paul Gendreau & Robert R. Ross, Revivification of Rehabilitation: Evidence from the 1980s, 4 Just. Q. 349, 349-407 (1987).
246. Steven Belenko, The Challenges of Integrating Drug Treatment into the Criminal Justice Process, 63 Alb. L. Rev. 833, 834-38 (2000).
247. Steven Belenko et al., Criminal Justice Responses to Crack, 28 J. Res. Crime & Delinq. 55, 70-72 (1991).
248. Theodore M. Hammett et al., U.S. Dep't of Just., 1996, 1997 Update: HIV/AIDS, STD's, and TB in Correctional Facilities 85-86 (1999) [hereinafter Hammett et al., 1996, 1997 Update].
249. Div. of Tuberculosis Elimination, U.S. Dep't of Health and Human Servs., Questions and Answers about TB (1999), available at http: // www.cdc.gov/nchstp/tb/faqs/qa.htm (last visited July 29, 2007).
250. Joan Petersilia, When Prisoners Return to Communities: Political, Economic, and Social Consequences, Fed. Probation, June 2001, at 3.
251. Scott A. Allen et al., Hepatitis C among Offenders: Correctional Challenge and Public Health Opportunity, Fed. Probation, Sept. 2003, at 22.
252. Nat'l Insts. of Health, Consensus Development Conference Statement: Management of Hepatitis C, 2002 (2002), available at http: // consensus.nih.gov.
253. Ass'n of State and Territorial Health Officials, Hepatitis C and Incarcerated Populations: The Next Wave for Correctional Health Initiatives (2002), available at http: //www.astho.org.
254. Theodore M. Hammett et al., The Burden of Infectious Disease among Inmates of and Releasees from U.S. Correctional Facilities, 1997, 92 Am. J. Pub. Health, 1789-94 (2002).
255. At the end of 1995, there were 24,226 HIV-positive inmates in state and federal prisons. The HIV prevalence rate was 2.4 percent in state prisons and 0.9 percent in federal prisons. See Laura Marushcak, U.S. Dep't of Just., HIV in Prisons and Jails, 1995, 1 (1997).
256. Theodore M. Hammett et al., U.S. Dep't. of Just., 1994 Update: HIV/AIDS and STD's in Correctional Facilities 14 (1995).
257. D. Stuart Sowder, Note: AIDS in Prison: Judicial Indifference to the AIDS Epidemic in Correctional Facilities Threatens the Constitutionality of Incarceration, 37 N.Y.L. Sch. L. Rev. 663, 666-67 (1992);
258. Art Golab, State Lacks AIDS Policy for Prisons, Lawmaker Says, Chi. Sun-Times, Dec. 24, 1995, at 9.
259. Joanne Mariner, Body and Soul: The Trauma of Prison Rape, in Building Violence 125, 126 (John P. May ed., Sage Publications 2000).
260. Robert Dumond, The Impact and Recovery of Prison Rape, available at http: //www.spr.org.
261. Human Rights Watch, No Escape: Male Rape in U.S. Prisons, Deliberate Indifference VIII (2001), available at http: //www.hrw.org (reporting that nearly half of the fifty states fail to collect data on rapes occurring in their jails and prisons).
262. Cindy Struckman-Johnson & David Struckman-Johnson, Sexual Coercion Rates in Seven Midwestern Prison Facilities for Men, 80 Prison J. 379, 381 (2000).
263. James Robertson, Prison Rape Elimination Act of 2003: A Primer, 40 No. 3 Crim. Law Bulletin 5 (May 2004).
264. Brenda V. Smith & Cynthia Dailard, Female Prisoners and AIDS: On the Margins of Public Health and Social Justice, 9 AIDS & Pub Pol'y J. 78, 80 (1994);
265. Crystal Mason, Comments by Crystal Mason: HIV-Positive Women in Prison, 9 Berkeley Women's L.J. 149, 150 (1994).
266. Anne S. De Groot et al., Setting the Standard for Care: HIV Risk Exposures and Clinical Manifestations of HIV in Incarcerated Massachusetts Women, 24 New Eng. J. on Crim. & Civ. Confinement 353, 360 (1998).
267. Susan Y. Chu et al., Impact of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus Epidemic on Mortality in Women of Reproductive Age, United States, 264 JAMA 225, 227 (1990).
268. See generally Henry J. Steadman & Joseph J. Cocozza, Mental Ill-ness in America's Prisons (Nat'l Coalition for the Mentally Ill in the Criminal Justice System 1993).
269. Paul F. Stavis, Why Prisons are Brim-Full of the Mentally Ill: Is Their Incarceration a Solution or a Sign of Failure?, 11 Geo. Mason U. Civ. Rts. L.J. 157, 159 (2000).
270. Linda A. Teplin, Psychiatric and Substance Abuse Disorders among Male Urban Jail Detainees, 84 Am. J. Pub. Health 292, 292-93 (1994).
271. Richard L. Elliott, Evaluating the Quality of Correctional Mental Health Services: An Approach to Surveying a Correctional Mental Health System, 15 Behav. Sci. & L. 427-39 (1997).
272. Unfortunately, the standard of care the Court set forth in Estelle is ambiguous because the Court did not provide, and has not provided, a substantive definition of such terms as " deliberate indifference." Other courts have grappled with these terms: Newman v. Alabama, 503 F.2d 1120 (5th Cir. 1974), cert. denied, 421 U.S. 948 (1975).
273. 974 F.2d 1050 (9th Cir. 1992).
274. Henry J. Steadman et al., A SAMHSA Research Initiative Assessing the Effectiveness of Jail Diversion Programs for Mentally Ill Persons, 50 Psychiatric Serv. 1620, 1620 (1999).
275. Stacy S. Lamon et al., New York City's System of Criminal Justice Mental Health Services, in Serving Mentally Ill Offenders 144, 145 (Gerald Landsberg et al. eds., Springer 2002).
276. Terence P. Thornberry & Jack E. Call, Constitutional Challenges to Prison Overcrowding: The Scientific Evidence of Harmful Effects, 35 Hastings L.J. 313, 343 (1983) (citing Garvin McCain, Verne C. Cox, & Paul B. Paulus, The Effect of Prison Overcrowding on Inmate Behavior (U.S. Dep't. of Justice, Nat'l Inst. of Justice 1980) (finding that " prisons with large populations and those that experience sharp increases in inmate population experience an increase in . . . psychiatric commitments" ).
277. Research increasingly shows how even less serious mental disorders (e.g., depression and attentional disorders) can be risk factors for violence and criminality. American Psychiatric Ass'n, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-IV-TR (4th ed. 2000), the standard diagnostic reference for mental health professionals.
278. E. Fuller Torrey, Editorial: Jails and Prisons: America's New Mental Hospitals, 85 Am. J. Pub. Health 1611, 1611-12 (1995) (quoting M. J. Grinfeld, Report Focuses on Jailed Mentally Ill, Psychiatric Times, July 1993, at 1);
279. H. Richard Lamb & Linda E. Weinberger, Persons with Severe Mental Illness in Jails and Prisons: A Review, 49 Psychiatric Serv. 483, 486 (1998).
280. Estelle v. Gamble, 429 U.S. 97 (1976).
281. Pugh v. Locke, 406 F. Supp. 318, 325 (M.D. Ala. 1976) (describing sexual exploitation of mentally ill inmate), aff'd as modified sub nom. Newman v. Alabama, 559 F.2d 283 (5th Cir. 1977), rev'd in part and remanded sub nom. Alabama v. Pugh, 483 U.S. 781 (1978).
282. Robert E. Drake et al., Review of Integrated Mental Health and Substance Abuse Treatment for Patients with Dual Disorders, 24 Schizophrenia Bull. 589, 601-3 (1998);
283. John F. Edens et al., Treating Prison Inmates with Co-Occurring Disorders: An Integrative Review of Existing Programs, 15 Behav. Sci. & L. 439, 440 (1997).
284. Mark J. Heyrman, Mental Illness in Prisons and Jails, 7 U. Chi. L. Sch. Roundtable 113, 118 (2000).
285. Karen M. Abram & Linda A. Teplin, Co-Occurring Disorders among Mentally Ill Jail Detainees: Implications for Public Policy, 46 Am. Psychologist 1036, 1039, 1044 (1991).
286. Mark R. Munetz et al., The Incarceration of Individuals with Severe Mental Disorders, 34 Community Mental Health J. 361, 369 (2001).
287. Bureau of Just. Stat., U.S. Dept of Just., Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics, 1996 (1996).
288. H. Richard Lamb, Involuntary Treatment for the Homeless Mentally Ill, Notre Dame J.L. Ethics & Pub. Pol'y 269, 277 (1989) (observing that " the estimates of the seriously mentally ill in the urban homeless population range from 25 to 50 percent . . . and that the true percentage is most likely in the upper end of that range" );
289. H. Richard Lamb et al., Treating the Homeless Mentally Ill: A Report of the Task Force on the Homeless Mentally Ill (Am. Psychiatric Ass'n 1992);
290. Bruce G. Link et al., Lifetime and Five-Year Prevalence of Homelessness in the United States, 84 Am. J. Pub. Health 1907 (1994);
291. Felicity Barringer, U.S. Homeless Count Is Far Below Estimates, N.Y. Times, Apr. 12, 1991, at A11 (noting underestimates of homelessness because of difficulties in enumerating homeless populations).
292. Kim Barker, New Court Tries Prevention, Seattle Times, Feb. 21, 1999, at B1.
293. Lee Rood, Iowa Imprisons More Mentally Ill, Des Moines Reg., Oct. 17, 1999, at 1A.
294. Phyllis L. Solomon et al., Homelessness in a Mentally Ill Urban Jail Population, 43 Hosp. & Community Psychiatry 169, 170 (1992).
295. Jeffrey L. Metzner, Guidelines for Psychiatric Services in Prison, 3 Crim. Behav. & Mental Health 252-67 (1993).
296. Joseph J. Cocozza & Kathleen Skowyra, Youth with Mental Health Disorders: Issues and Emerging Responses, Juv. Just., Apr. 2000, at 3.
297. Shaun Parsons et al., Prevalence of Mental Disorder in Female Remand Prisons, 12 J. Forensic Psychiatry 194, 196 (2001);
298. Mark I. Singer et al., The Psychosocial Issues of Women Serving Time in Jail, 40 Soc. Work 103, 107 (1995).
299. Henry J. Steadman, Estimating Mental Health Needs and Service Utilization among Prison Inmates, 19 Bull. Am. Acad. Psychiatry & L. 297-307 (1991).
300. Kathleen Jordan et al., Prevalence of Psychiatric Disorders among Incarcerated Women, 53 Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 513, 514 (1996).
301. Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring Program, U.S. Dep't of Just., 1998 Annual Report on Drug Use among Adult and Juvenile Arrestees 1 (1998), available at http: //www.ncjrs.org.
302. Thomas W. Haywood et al., Characteristics of Women in Jail and Treatment Orientations: A Review, 24 Behav. Modification 307, 310 (2000).
303. Emil R. Pinta, The Prevalence of Serious Mental Disorders among U.S. Prisoners, in Forensic Mental Health: Working with Offenders with Mental Illness 12 (Gerald Landsberg & Amy Smiley eds., Civic Research Inst. 2001).
304. Devon R. Charles et al., Suicidal Ideation and Behavior among Women in Jail, 19 J. Contemp. Crim. Just. 65, 75 (2003).
305. Lawrence A. Greenfield & Tracy L. Snell, U.S. Dep't of Just., Special Report: Women Offenders 8 (1999), available at http: //www.ojp.usdoj .gov/bjs/pub/pdf/wo.pdf (last visited July 29, 2007).
306. Sandra E. Taylor, The Health Status of Black Women, in Health Issues in the Black Community 44, 56 (Ronald L. Braithwaite & Sandra E. Taylor eds., 2d ed. 2001).
307. Crim. Just. Inst., Inc., The Corrections Yearbook 2001: Statistics on Prison Populations, available at http: //www.cji-inc.com.
308. Office of the Surgeon Gen., U.S. Dep't of Health and Human Servs., Mental Health: Culture, Race, and Ethnicity (2001) [hereinafter Mental Health: Culture, Race, and Ethnicity], available at http: //www .surgeongeneral.gov.
309. Marc A. Zimmerman et al., Resilience among Urban African American Male Adolescents: A Study of the Protective Effects of Sociopolitical Control on Their Mental Health, 27 Am. J. Psychol. 733 (1999).
310. John C. Boger, Race and the American City: The Kerner Commission in Retrospect: An Introduction, 71 N.C. L. Rev. 1289, 1329 (1993).
311. U.S. Dep't of Health and Human Servs., Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon Gen. 82, 84, 406-8 (2000) [hereinafter Mental Health Report 2000].
312. Alvin F. Pouissaint & Amy Alexander, Lay My Burden Down: Suicide and the Mental Health Crisis among African Americans 95-96 (2000) (reviewing historical and current unequal health and mental health care given to African Americans).
313. Arthur L. Whaley, Racism in the Provision of Mental Health Services: A Social-Cognitive Analysis, 68 Am. J. Orthopsychiatry 47, 52 (1998).
314. Jewelle Taylor Gibbs & Diana Fuery, Mental Health and Well-Being of Black Women: Toward Strategies of Empowerment, 22 Am. J. Community Psychol. 559 (1994).
315. Elaine J. Copeland, Oppressed Conditions and the Mental Health Needs of Low-Income Black Women: Barriers to Services, Strategies for Change, 1 Women & Therapy 13, 26 (1982).
316. Robert Whitaker, Mad in America: Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally Ill 171-72 (2002).
317. Kenneth P. Lindsey & Gordon L. Paul, Involuntary Commitments to Public Mental Institutions: Issues Involving the Overrepresentation of Blacks and Assessment of Relative Functioning, 106 Psychol. Bull. 171, 172 (1989);
318. see also the numerous studies cited in Susan Stefan, Issues Relating to Women and Ethnic Minorities in Mental Health Treatment and Law, in Law, Mental Health, and Mental Disorder 255 (Bruce D. Sales & Dan W. Shuman eds., 1996).
319. Sue E. Estroff et al., Everybody's Got a Little Mental Illness: Accounts of Illness and Self among People with Severe Persistent Mental Illness, 5 Med. Anthropology Q. 331, 362 (1991).
320. DSM III R specifically cautions clinicians concerning this problem. American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 3d rev. (2000).
321. V. R. Adebimpe, Overview: White Norms and Psychiatric Diagnosis of Black Psychiatric Patients, 138 Am. J. Psychiatry 279, 279, 281-83 (1981);
322. B. Jones & B. Gray, Problems of Diagnosing Schizophrenia and Affective Disorders among Blacks, 37 Hosp. & Community Psychiatry 61, 61-65 (1986).
323. P. Solomon, Racial Factors in Mental Health Service Utilization, Psychosocial Rehabilitation J., Mar. 1988, at 10.
324. Ruth L. Greene et al., Mental Health and Help-Seeking Behavior, in Aging in Black America 185 (James S. Jackson et al. eds., 1993);
325. Vickie M. Mays et al., Mental Health Symptoms and Service Utilization Patterns of Help-Seeking among African American Women, in Mental Health in Black America 161 (Harold W. Neighbors & James S. Jackson eds., 1996).
326. Erica Goode, Disparities Seen in Mental Care for Minorities, N.Y. Times, Aug. 27, 2001, at A1.
327. Stephanie Hartwell, An Examination of Racial Differences among Mentally Ill Offenders in Massachusetts, 52 Psychiatric Servs. 234, 236 (2001).
328. Evalina W. Bestman, Intervention Techniques in the Black Community, in Cross-Cultural Training for Mental Health Professionals 213 (Harriet P. Lefley & Paul B. Pedersen eds., 1986);
329. Robert L. Bragg, Discussion: Cultural Aspects of Mental Health Care for Black Americans, in Cross-Cultural Psychology 179 (Albert Gaw ed., 1982);
330. Lawrence E. Gary, Attitudes of Black Adults toward Community Mental Health Centers, 38 Hosp. & Community Psychiatry 1100, 1105 (1987);
331. Gerald G. Jackson, Cross-Cultural Counseling with Afro Americans, in Handbook of Cross-Cultural Counseling and Therapy 231 (Paul Pedersen ed., 1985).
332. Frontline: " A Crime of Insanity" (PBS television broadcast, Oct. 17, 2002).
333. James J. Stephan, U.S. Dep't of Just., State Prison Expenditures, 1996, 1, 3 (1996).
334. Therapy instead of Jail, Palm Beach Post, Apr. 19, 1999, at 18A.
335. M. DeAnna Doherty, Mentally Ill Inmates, in International Encyclopedia of Justice Studies (2002), available at http: //www.iejs.com/Corrections/ Mentally_Ill_Inmates.htm (last visited July 29, 2007).
336. Mentally Ill Offender Treatment and Crime Reduction Act: Hearing on S. 1194 before the Sen. Comm. on the Judiciary, 108th Cong. (2003) (statement of Reginald A. Wilkinson, Director, Ohio Dep't of Rehabilitation and Correction), available at http: //www.drc.state.oh.us/WEB/Articles/article77.htm.
337. Erica Goode, Disparities Seen in Mental Care for Minorities, N.Y. Times, Aug. 27, 2001, at A1.
338. Race Matters.Org, Minorities' Care for Mental Illness Is Called Inferior, available at http: //www.racematters.org.
339. Fred Osher et al., A Best Practice Approach to Community Reentry from Jails for Inmates with Co-Occurring Disorders: The APIC Model, 49 Crime & Delinq. 79 (2003).
340. Patricia Griffin, The Back Door of the Jail, in Effectively Addressing the Mental Health Needs of Jail Detainees 91, 94-99 (Henry J. Steadman ed., 1990);
341. Fred Osher et al., A Best Practice Approach to Community Reentry from Jails for Inmates with Co-Occurring Disorders: The APIC Model, 49 Crime & Delinq. 79 (2003);
342. Am. Ass'n of Cmty. Psychiatrists, Position Statement on Post Release Planning (2001), available at http: // www.wpic.pitt.edu.
343. Arthur J. Lurigio & John A. Swartz, Changing the Contours of the Criminal Justice System to Meet the Needs of Persons with Serious Mental Illness, in Criminal Justice 2000: Policies, Processes, and Decisions of the Criminal Justice System 45, 88-93 (U.S. Dep't of Just. ed., 2000);
344. Roger H. Peters & Holly A. Hills, Community Treatment and Supervision Strategies for Offenders with Co-Occurring Disorders: What Works?, in Strategic Solutions: The International Community Corrections Association Examines Substance Abuse 81, 116-19 (Edward J. Latessa ed., 1999).
345. Dareh Gregorian & Pia Akerman, Ex-Con Barber in Hair Tangle, N.Y. Post, Feb. 21, 2003, at 3;
346. see also Clyde Haberman, Ex-Inmate Denied Chair (and Clippers), N.Y. Times, Feb. 25, 2003, at B1.
347. Harry J. Holzer et al., The Urban Inst., Can Employers Play a More Positive Role in Prisoner Reentry? 14 (2002), available at http: // www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/410803_PositiveRole.pdf (last visited July 29, 2007).
348. A Stigma That Never Fades, Economist, Aug. 10, 2002, at 25, 26.
349. Sharon Dietrich, Maurice Emsellem, & Catherine Ruckelshaus, Work Reform: The Other Side of Welfare Reform, 9 Stan. L. & Pol'y Rev. 53, 56 (1998). Title VII applies to state and municipal, as well as private, employers.
350. Michael Meltsner et al., An Act to Promote the Rehabilitation of Criminal Offenders in the State of New York, 24 Syracuse L. Rev. 885, 904-5 (1973).
351. Note that the decision in Green v. Mo. Pac. R.R. Co., 523 F.2d 1290 (8th Cir. 1975) is not binding on the Arizona courts or the Ninth Circuit. Therefore, companies in Arizona may maintain policies eliminating all applicants from employment who have been convicted of a criminal offense, absent some legislative action prohibiting such practices. Furthermore, the United States Supreme Court has not addressed this issue.
352. Philip Harvey, Combating Joblessness: An Analysis of the Principal Strategies That Have Influenced the Development of American Employment and Social Welfare Law during the 20th Century, 21 Berkeley J. Emp. & Lab. L. 677, 724-27, 741 fig.7 (2000).
353. Ctr. on Budget & Pol'y Priorities, Still Far from the Dream: Recent Developments in Black Income, Employment, and Poverty 28 (1988).
354. Many residents in East Palo were employed in low-wage jobs with little job security. See Dan Walters, A New Chance for Change, Sacramento Bee, Nov. 28, 1988, at A3;
355. Ramon G. McLeod, Good Jobs Keep Receding beyond Black Workers' Grasp, S.F. Chron., Mar. 29, 1988, at A1.
356. Andrew Hacker, Two Nations: Black and White, Separate, Hostile, and Unequal 103 (1992) (noting that in 1990, average Black unemployment was 2.76 times greater than White, which was highest differential since 1960).
357. Phillip Harvey, Human Rights and Economic Policy Discourse: Taking Economic and Social Rights Seriously 33 Columbia Hum. Rts. L. Rev. 363, 433 (Spring 2002).
358. Joleen Kirschenman & Kathryn Neckerman, " We'd Love to Hire Them, But . . . ," in The Urban Underclass 203, 203-4 (Christopher Jencks & Paul E. Peterson eds., 1991).
359. William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged 1-5 (1987) (blaming the rise of the underclass on the disappearance of unskilled jobs from urban areas).
360. William Julius Wilson, When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor 3-86, 25-50 (1996).
361. Joan Petersilia, When Prisoners Come Home: Parole and Prisoner Reentry 4-5 (2003) [hereinafter When Prisoners Come Home].
362. Fox Butterfield, Freed from Prison, but Still Paying a Penalty, N.Y. Times, Dec. 29, 2002, at 18;
363. Avi Brisman, Double Whammy: Collateral Consequences of Conviction and Imprisonment for Sustainable Communities and the Environment, 28 Wm. & Mary Envtl. L. & Pol'y Rev. 423, 433 (2004).
364. Bruce E. May, The Character Component of Occupational Licensing Laws: A Continuing Barrier to the Ex-Felon's Employment Opportunities, 71 N.D. L. Rev. 187, 193 (1995).
365. Bill Hebenton & Terry Thomas, Criminal Records: State, Citizen, and the Politics of Protection 111 (1993).
366. Jeremy Travis et al., From Prison to Home: The Dimensions and Consequences of Prisoner Reentry 13 (2001) (reporting number of incarcerated women who have children), 31 (listing Alabama, Delaware, Iowa, Mississippi, Rhode Island, and South Carolina as states that impose permanent bars for public employment on ex-offenders).
367. Garcia v. Duffy, 492 So. 2d 435, 438 (Fla. 2d DCA 1986.
368. Babi-Ali v. City of New York, 979 F. Supp. 268, 277 (S.D.N.Y. 1997);
369. Haddock v. City of New York, 553 N.E.2d 987, 992 (N.Y. 1990).
370. Fla. Laws ch. 99 225, 1400, 1412-13 (1999) (to be codified at Fla. Stat. § 768.096).
371. Eric Rasmussen, Stigma and Self-Fulfilling Expectations of Criminality, 39 J.L. & Econ. 519, 540 (1996) (noting that " [t]he private sector . . . unofficially punishes known criminals by stigmatizing them" ).
372. Civil Rights Act of 1964, 42 U.S.C. § 2000e-2(a)(1) (1991).
373. 42 U.S.C. § 2000e-2(k)(1)(A)(i).
374. Debbie A. Mukamal & Paul N. Samuels, Statutory Limitations on Civil Rights of People with Criminal Records, 30 Fordham Urb. L.J. 1501, 1503 (2003).
375. Equal Employment Opportunity Comm'n, Policy Guidance on the Consideration of Arrest Records in Employment Decisions under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, as amended, 42 U.S.C. § § 2000e to 2000e-17 (1990).
376. Wis. Stat. Ann. § 111.31 (West 2003).
377. Haw. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 378 2 (Michie 1999).
378. N.Y. Correct. Law § 752 (Mckinney 1998);
379. N.Y. Exec. Law § 296 (Mckinney 1998).
380. These statutes have only been held applicable to those seeking employment and not current employees. See Green v. Wells Fargo Alarm Serv., 192 A.D.2d 463, 464 (N.Y. App. Div. 1993).
381. N.Y. Correct. Law § 752.
382. 200 A.D.2d 224 (N.Y. App. Div. 1994).
383. Ford, 200 A.D.2d at 229-30.
384. 713 F. Supp. 677 (S.D.N.Y. 1989).
385. While this action was brought in federal court, the case has since been favorably cited by New York state courts. See Ford, 200 A.D.2d at 228.
386. Soto-Lopez, 713 F. Supp. at 678.
387. 712 N.E.2d 669, 670 (N.Y. 1999).
388. 181 A.D.2d 614 (N.Y. App. Div. 1992).
389. Joan Petersilia, Parole and Prisoner Reentry in the United States, in Prisons 479, 519 (Michael Tonry & Joan Petersilia eds., 1999) [hereinafter Parole and Prisoner Reentry].
390. Ted Palmer, Aspects of Successful Integration, in Choosing Correctional Options That Work 139-40 (Alan Harland ed., 1996).
391. Leroy D. Clark, A Civil Rights Task: Removing Barriers to Employment of Ex-Convicts, 38 U.S.F. L. Rev. 193 (2004)
392. Monica Scales, Employer Catch-22: The Paradox between Employer Liability for Employee Criminal Acts and the Prohibition against Ex-Convict Discrimination, 11 Geo. Mason L. Rev. 419 (2002);
393. Sheri-Ann S. L. Lau, Employment Discrimination Because of One's Arrest and Court Record in Hawaii, 22 U. Haw. L. Rev. 709 (2000);
394. James R. Todd, It's Not My Problem: How Workplace Violence and Potential Employer Liability Lead to Employment Discrimination of Ex-Convicts, 36 Ariz. St. L.J. 725 (2004).
395. John Hagan & Ronit Dinovitzer, Collateral Consequences of Conviction for Children, Communities, and Prisoners, 26 Crime & Just. 121, 134 (1999).
396. AScribe Newswire, "Voting Rights Groups Praise Iowa Governor for Restoring Eligibility to Thousands," Ascribe Inc., June 17, 2005
397. Rachel La Corte, Ex-Felons Face Roadblocks in Regaining Voting Rights, available at http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/local/231136_gfelon04.html (July 4, 2005.
398. Kathleen M. Olivares et al., The Collateral Consequences of a Felony Conviction: A National Study of State Legal Codes Ten Years Later, Fed. Probation, Sept. 1996, at 10, 13, 16 n.1 (1996).
399. Jon Shure and Rashida Macmurray, N.J. Policy Perspective, Restoring the Right to Vote: Isn't It Time? (2000), available at http://www.njpp.org.
400. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan 141-86 (J. Plamenatz ed., 1963);
401. John Locke, The Second Treatise of Government 366 (rev. ed., J.W. Gough 1976);
402. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice 11-12, 118-92 (Belknap Press of Harvard Univ. Press 1971). These philosophers suggest that the individual en-gages in a form of "social contract" to form a particular system of government and that this contract must be adhered to for order to be maintained; Jay A. Sigler, Civil Rights in America: 1500 to the Present 383-84 (1998).
403. Note: The Disenfranchisement of Ex-Felons: Citizenship, Criminality, and "The Purity of the Ballot Box," 102 Harv. L. Rev. 1300 (1989).
404. Anthony C. Thompson, Navigating the Hidden Obstacles to Ex-Offender Reentry, 45 B.C. L. Rev. 255, 282 (2004).
405. James Q.Wilson, Thinking about Crime 118 (rev. ed. 1983).
406. Ronald Dworkin, Taking Rights Seriously 190-91 (1977).
407. John Braithwaite & Philip Pettit, Not Just Desserts: A Republican Theory of Criminal Justice 46 (1990).
408. Marc Mauer, Felon Disenfranchisement: A Policy Whose Time Has Passed, 31 A.B.A. Human Rights 1 (Winter 2004).
409. Nora V. Demleitner, Continuing Payment on One's Debt to Society: The German Model of Felon Disenfranchisement as an Alternative, 84 Minn. L. Rev. 753, 770-71 (2000).
410. Alec C. Ewald, Civil Death: The Ideological Paradox of Criminal Disenfranchisement Law in the United States, 2002 Wis. L. Rev. 1045 (2002).
411. Karen M. Arrington, The Struggle to Gain the Right to Vote: 1787-1965, in Voting Rights in America 25, 30 (Karen M. Arrington & William L. Taylor eds., 1992).
412. Andrew L. Shapiro, Note: Challenging Criminal Disenfranchisement under the Voting Rights Act: A New Strategy, 103 Yale L.J. 537, 542 (1993) (referencing Hunter v. Underwood, 471 U.S. 222 [1985]) (citations omitted).
413. Eric Lichtblau, Confusing Rules Deny Vote to Ex-felons, Study Says, N.Y. Times, Feb. 20, 2005, § 1, at 24.
414. Jamie Fellner & Marc Mauer, Human Rights Watch and the Sentencing Project, Losing the Vote: The Impact of Felon Disenfranchisement Laws 8 (1998), available at http://www.hrw.org/reports98/vote.
415. Kate Zernike, Iowa Governor Will Give Felons the Right to Vote, N.Y. Times, June 18, 2005, at A8.
416. John Hopkins, An Appeal for Blanket Voting Rights to Freed Cons, Virginian-Pilot, Jan. 11, 2006, available at http://home.hamptonroads.com/stories/story.cfm?story=97951&ran=243974 (last visited July 29, 2007).
417. Patricia Allard & Marc Mauer, The Sentencing Project, Regaining the Vote: An Assessment of Activity Relating to Felon Disenfranchisemtn Laws 1 (1999).
418. Adam H. Kurland, Partisan Rhetoric, Constitutional Reality, and Political Responsibility: The Troubling Constitutional Consequences of Achieving D.C. Statehood by Simple Legislation, 60 Geo.Wash. L. Rev. 475, 499 (1992).
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420. Jeff Manza et al., The Truly Disenfranchised: Felon Voting Rights and American Politics 1, 18-19 (2001) (unpublished paper), available at http://www.northwestern.edu;
421. Sasha Abramsky, A Growing Gap in American Democracy, N.Y. Times, July 27, 2002, at A23.
422. Editorial: Probation Violators Should Be Jailed, Ledger (Lakeland, FL), Aug. 14, 2004, at A18.
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426. Sunny A. M. Koshy, The Right of [All] the People to Be Secure: Extending Fundamental Fourth Amendment Rights to Probationers and Parolees, 39 Hastings L.J. 449, 466 (1988).
427. Melinda K. Blatt, State Liability for Injuries Inflicted by Parolees, 56 U. Cinn. L. Rev. 615, 615 (1987);
428. Travis O'Leary, A History of Parole, in Probation, Parole, and Community Corrections 109 (Robert M. Carter ed., 1984).
429. Joan Petersilia, Parole and Prisoner Reentry in the United States, in Prisons 479, 506-7 (Michael Tonry & Joan Petersilia eds., 1999).
430. Thomas Peters & David Norris, Reconsidering Parole Release Decisions in Illinois: Facts, Myths, and the Need for Policy Changes, 24 J. Marshall L. Rev. 815, 835-39 (1991);
431. William Recktenwald & Rob Karweth, Parole System a Bad Joke That May Get Worse, Chi. Trib., Apr. 7, 1991, at 1.
432. Thomas J. Bamonte, The Viability of Morissey v. Brewer and the Due Process Rights of Parolees and Other Conditional Releases, 18 S. Ill. U. L.J. 121, 134 (1993).
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434. Richard P. Seiter, Prisoner Reentry and the Role of Parole Officers, Fed. Probation, Dec. 2002, at 50-51.
435. David N. Adair, Revocation of Supervised Release: A Judicial Function, 6 Fed. Sentencing Rep. 190 (1994).
436. Thomas J. Bamonte & Thomas M. Peters, The Parole Revocation Process in Illinois, 24 Loy. U. Chi. L.J. 211, 225-27 (1993).
437. Eric Lotke, Nat'l Ctr. of Inst. & Alternatives, Hobbling a Generation: Young African-American Males in Washington, D.C.'s Criminal Justice System Five Years Later 1 (1997).
438. Jonathan Simon, Poor Discipline: Parole and the Social Control of the Underclass, 1890-1990 252, 253 (1993).
439. See Walter Scanlong, It's Time I Shed My Ex-Convict Status, Newsweek, Feb. 21, 2000, at 10.
440. Bruce E. May, Real-World Reflection: The Character Component of Occupational Licensing Laws: A Continuing Barrier to the Ex-Felon's Employment Opportunities, 71 N.D. L. Rev. 187, 187-88 (1995).
441. Kate Munro, Employers Challenged, N.H. Sunday News, Mar. 8, 1998.
442. Eric Rasmusen, Stigma and Self-Fulfilling Expectations of Criminality, 39 J.L. & Econ. 519, 520 (1996).
443. Joan Petersilia, When Prisoners Return to Communities: Political, Economic, and Social Consequences, 65 Fed. Probation 3, 4 (2001).
444. Leena Kurki, Restorative and Community Justice in the United States, 27 Crime & Just. 235, 237 (2000).
445. Anthony C. Thompson, It Takes a Community to Prosecute, 77 Notre Dame L. Rev. 321 (2002).
446. Francis T. Cullen et al., Environmental Corrections: A New Paradigm for Effective Probation and Parole Supervision, Fed. Probation, Sept. 2002, at 28.
447. Edward E. Rhine, Why "What Works" Matters under the "Broken Windows" Model of Supervision, Fed. Probation, Sept. 2002, at 38, 40.
448. Jeremy Travis, Laurie O. Robinson, & Amy L. Solomon, Prisoner Reentry: Issues for Practice and Policy, 17 Crim. Just. 12, 12-13 (2002).
449. Excerpted from Terry Saunders, Staying Home, 41 No. 1 Judges J. (Winter 2002).
450. Jeremy Travis, Laurie Robinson, & Amy Solomon, Prisoner Reentry: Issues for Practice and Policy, Criminal Justice Magazine, Spring 2002, at 12.
451. Franz Maruna & Thomas LeBel, Welcome Home? Examining the "Reentry Court" Concept from a Strengths-Based Perspective, 4 W. Criminology Rev. 91 (2003).
452. Joan Petersilia & Susan Turner, Intensive Probation and Parole, 17 Crime & Just. 281, 282 (1993).
453. Peter Finn & Andrea K. Newlyn, U.S. Dep't of Justice, Miami's "Drug Court": A Different Approach 3 (1993).
454. John S. Goldkamp, The Drug Court Response: Issues and Implications for Justice Change, 63 Alb. L. Rev. 923, 943 (2000).
455. James Q. Wilson and George L. Kelling, Broken Windows: The Police and Neighborhood Safety, Atlantic Monthly, Mar. 1982.
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457. Anthony C. Thompson, Courting Disorder: Some Thoughts on Community Courts, 10 Wash. Univ. J. L. & Pol'y 63, 98 (2002).
458. Morris Hoffman, Therapeutic Jurisprudence, Neo-Rehabilitation, Judicial Collectivism: The Least Dangerous Branch Becomes Most Dangerous, 29 Fordham Urb. L.J. 2,063 (2002).
459. Attorney General Janet Reno, Remarks at John Jay College of Criminal Justice on the Reentry Court Initiative (Feb. 10, 2000), transcript available at http://www.usdoj.gov.
460. Kim Taylor-Thompson, Tuning Up Gideon's Trumpet, 71 Fordham L. Rev. 1461, 1470 (2003).
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470. James Austin, Prisoner Reentry: Current Trends, Practices, and Issues, 47 Crime and Delinq. 314, 329-32 (2001).
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484. Robert Wuthnow, How Religious Groups Promote Forgiving: A National Study, 39 J. for Sci. Study Religion 25, 125 (2000).
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488. Brent Staples, How Denying the Vote to Ex-Offenders Undermines Democracy, N.Y. Times, Sept. 17, 2004, at A26.
489. O. J. Williams & L. R. Becker, Domestic Partner Abuse: The Results of a National Survey, 9 Violence & Victims 287 (1994).
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