Main factors affecting the lifetime of Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cells in vehicle applications: A review

Applied Energy

Volumn 125, Issue , 2014, Pages 60-75

  Pei, Pucheng ^a   Chen, Huicui ^a  

^a TSINGHUA UNIVERSITY   (China)

Author keywords

Degradation; Gas starvation; Load cycling; PEM fuel cell; Water management

Indexed keywords

DEGRADATION; GAS FUEL PURIFICATION; WATER MANAGEMENT;

FUEL CELL OPERATION; FUEL CELL PERFORMANCE; FUEL-CELL DYNAMICS; GAS TRANSPORT; IN-VEHICLE APPLICATIONS; LOAD CYCLING; MITIGATION MEASURES; PEM FUEL CELL;

PROTON EXCHANGE MEMBRANE FUEL CELLS (PEMFC);

DEGRADATION; FUEL CELL; GAS TRANSPORT; LITERATURE REVIEW; MEMBRANE; VEHICLE COMPONENT;

EID: 84898855297     PISSN: 03062619     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.03.048     Document Type: Review

References (170)

1. Oh S., Kim K., Oh S., Kwak H. Optimal operation of a 1-kW PEMFC-based CHP system for residential applications. Appl Energy 2012, 95:93-101.
2. Tirnovan R., Giurgea S., Miraoui A. Strategies for optimizing the opening of the outlet air circuit's nozzle to improve the efficiency of the PEMFC generator. Appl Energy 2011, 88(4):1197-1204.
3. Jaggi V., Jayanti S. A conceptual model of a high-efficiency, stand-alone power unit based on a fuel cell stack with an integrated auto-thermal ethanol reformer. Appl Energy 2013, 110:295-303.
4. Wang Y., Chen K.S., Mishler J., Cho S.C., Adroher X.C. A review of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells: technology, applications, and needs on fundamental research. Appl Energy 2011, 88(4):981-1007.
5. Kazim A. Introduction of PEM fuel-cell vehicles in the transportation sector of the United Arab Emirates. Appl Energy 2003, 74(1):125-133.
6. Knowles M., Baglee D., Morris A., Ren Q. The state of the art in fuel cell condition monitoring and maintenance. World Electric Vehicle J 2011, 4(1):487-494. [2011-01-01].
7. Zheng Q., Cheng X., Jao T., Weng F., Su A., Chiang Y. Degradation analyses of Ru85Se15 catalyst layer in proton exchange membrane fuel cells. J Power Sources 2012, 218(0):79-87. [2012-11-15].
8. Bi W., Fuller T.F. Modeling of PEM fuel cell Pt/C catalyst degradation. J Power Sources 2008, 178(1):188-196. [2008-03-15].
9. Zhang F., Advani S.G., Prasad A.K., Boggs M.E., Sullivan S.P., Beebe T.P. Quantitative characterization of catalyst layer degradation in PEM fuel cells by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Electrochim Acta 2009, 54(16):4025-4030. [2009-06-30].
10. Jao T., Jung G., Kuo S., Tzeng W., Su A. Degradation mechanism study of PTFE/Nafion membrane in MEA utilizing an accelerated degradation technique. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2012, 37(18):13623-13630. [2012-09-01].
11. Jao T., Ke S., Chi P., Jung G., Chan S. Degradation on a PTFE/Nafion membrane electrode assembly with accelerating degradation technique. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2010, 35(13):6941-6949. [2010-07-01].
12. Eom K., Cho E., Nam S., Lim T., Jang J.H., Kim H H., et al. Degradation behavior of a polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell employing metallic bipolar plates under reverse current condition. Electrochim Acta 2012, 78(0):324-330. [2012-09-01].
13. Hartnig C., Schmidt T.J. On a new degradation mode for high-temperature polymer electrolyte fuel cells: how bipolar plate degradation affects cell performance. Electrochim Acta 2011, 56(11):4237-4242. [2011-04-15].
14. Lin C. Surface roughness effect on the metallic bipolar plates of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell. Appl Energy 2013, 104:898-904.
15. Wu J., Yuan X.Z., Martin J.J., Wang H., Zhang J., Shen J., et al. A review of PEM fuel cell durability: degradation mechanisms and mitigation strategies. J Power Sources 2008, 184(1):104-119.
16. Ralph T.R. Proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Platinum Met Rev 1997, 41:102-112.
17. St-Pierre J., Wilkinson D.P., Knights S., Bos M.L. Relationships between water management, contamination and lifetime degradation in PEFC. J New Mater Electr Syst 2000, 3(2):99-106. [2000-01-01].
18. Washington K. In: Proceedings of fuel cell seminar 2000, Portland, USA; 2000. p. 468-72.
19. Endoh E., Terazono S., Widjaja H., Takimoto Y. Degradation study of MEA for PEMFCs under low humidity conditions. Electrochem Solid-State Lett 2004, 7(7):A209-A211.
20. Yamazaki O, Echigo M, Tabata T. Proceedings of fuel cell seminar 2002, Palm Springs, USA; 2002. p. 105-8.
21. St-Pierre J., Jia N. Successful demonstration of ballard PEMFCS for space shuttle applications. J New Mater Electr Syst 2002, 5(4):263-272.
22. Fowler M.W., Mann R.F., Amphlett J.C., Peppley B.A., Roberge P.R. Incorporation of voltage degradation into a generalised steady state electrochemical model for a PEM fuel cell. J Power Sources 2002, 106(1):274-283.
23. Ahn S., Shin S., Ha H.Y., Hong S., Lee Y., Lim T.W., et al. Performance and lifetime analysis of the kW-class PEMFC stack. J Power Sources 2002, 106(1):295-303.
24. Cheng X., Chen L., Peng C., Chen Z., Zhang Y., Fan Q. Catalyst microstructure examination of PEMFC membrane electrode assemblies vs. time. J Electrochem Soc 2004, 151(1):A48-A52.
25. Scholta J., Berg N., Wilde P., Jörissen L., Garche J. Development and performance of a 10kW PEMFC stack. J Power Sources 2004, 127(1):206-212.
26. Cleghorn S., Mayfield D.K., Moore D.A., Moore J.C., Rusch G., Sherman T.W., et al. A polymer electrolyte fuel cell life test: 3 years of continuous operation. J Power Sources 2006, 158(1):446-454.
27. Sishtla C., Koncar G., Platon R., Gamburzev S., Appleby A.J., Velev O.A. Performance and endurance of a PEMFC operated with synthetic reformate fuel feed. J Power Sources 1998, 71(1):249-255.
28. Nakayama T. Proceedings of fuel cell seminar 2000, Portland, USA; 2000. p. 391-4.
29. Isono T., Suzuki S., Kaneko M., Akiyama Y., Miyake Y., Yonezu I. Development of a high-performance PEFC module operated by reformed gas. J Power Sources 2000, 86(1):269-273.
30. Meada H, Yoshimura A, Fukumoto H. In: Proceedings of fuel cell seminar 2000, Portland, USA; 2000. p. 379-400.
31. Sakamoto S, Fuju A, Shindo K, Yoshida S, Yoshida S, Nakato K et al. In: Proceedings of fuel cell seminar 2000, Portland, USA; 2000. p. 85-94.
32. Fowler M., Amphlett J.C., Mann R.F., Peppley B.A., Roberge P.R. Issues associated with voltage degradation in a PEMFC. J New Mater Electr Syst 2002, 5(4):255-262.
33. Cho E., Ko J., Ha H.Y., Hong S., Lee K., Lim T., et al. Effects of water removal on the performance degradation of PEMFCs repetitively brought to <0C. J Electrochem Soc 2004, 151(5):A661-A665.
34. Knights S.D., Colbow K.M., St-Pierre J., Wilkinson D.P. Aging mechanisms and lifetime of PEFC and DMFC. J Power Sources 2004, 127(1-2):127-134. [2004-01-01].
35. Oszcipok M., Riemann D., Kronenwett U., Kreideweis M., Zedda M. Statistic analysis of operational influences on the cold start behaviour of PEM fuel cells. J Power Sources 2005, 145(2):407-415.
36. Xie J., Wood D.L., Wayne D.M., Zawodzinski T.A., Atanassov P., Borup R.L. Durability of PEFCs at high humidity conditions. J Electrochem Soc 2005, 152(1):A104-A113.
37. Yu J., Matsuura T., Yoshikawa Y., Islam M.N., Hori M. In situ analysis of performance degradation of a PEMFC under nonsaturated humidification. Electrochem Solid-State Lett 2005, 8(3):A156-A158.
38. Endoh E, Kawazoe H, Honmura SS. In: Proceedings of fuel cell seminar 2006, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA; 2006. p. 284-7.
39. Du B, Pollard R, Elter J. In: Proceedings of fuel cell seminar 2006, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA; 2006. p. 61-4.
40. Xu H., Wu M., Liu Y., Mittal V., Kassim F., Vieth B., et al. Durability of nafion-teflon-phosphotungstic acid composite membranes in PEM fuel cells at 100 degree sign C and 25% RH. ECS Trans 2006, 3(1):561-568.
41. Owejan J.E., Paul T.Y., Makharia R. Mitigation of carbon corrosion in microporous layers in PEM fuel cells. ECS Trans 2007, 11(1):1049-1057.
42. Kocha SS. Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells, automotive applications. Fuel cells. Springer; 2013. p. 473-518.
43. Verhage A.J., Coolegem J.F., Mulder M.J., Yildirim M.H., de Bruijn F.A. 30,000h operation of a 70kW stationary PEM fuel cell system using hydrogen from a chlorine factory. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2013.
44. Jing F., Hou M., Shi W., Fu J., Yu H., Ming P., et al. The effect of ambient contamination on PEMFC performance. J Power Sources 2007, 166(1):172-176.
45. Biesdorf J., Zamel N., Kurz T. Influence of air contaminants on planar, self-breathing hydrogen PEM fuel cells in an outdoor environment. J Power Sources 2014, 247:339-345.
46. Faber P., Drewnick F., Piske J., Kurz T., Borrmann S. Effects of atmospheric aerosol on the performance of environmentally sustainable passive air-breathing PEM fuel cells. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2012, 37(22):17203-17208. [2012-11-01].
47. Jiao K., Zhou Y., Du Q., Yin Y., Yu S., Li X. Numerical simulations of carbon monoxide poisoning in high temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cells with various flow channel designs. Appl Energy 2013, 104:21-41.
48. Debe M.K., Schmoeckel A.K., Vernstrom G.D., Atanasoski R. High voltage stability of nanostructured thin film catalysts for PEM fuel cells. J Power Sources 2006, 161(2):1002-1011. [2006-10-27].
49. Borup RL, Davey JR, Garzon FH, Wood DL, Inbody MA. PEM fuel cell electrocatalyst durability measurements. J Power Sources 2006;163(1 spec. iss.):76-81 [2006-01-01].
50. Taniguchi A., Akita T., Yasuda K., Miyazaki Y. Analysis of electrocatalyst degradation in PEMFC caused by cell reversal during fuel starvation. J Power Sources 2004, 130(1):42-49.
51. Taniguchi A., Akita T., Yasuda K., Miyazaki Y. Analysis of degradation in PEMFC caused by cell reversal during air starvation. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2008, 33(9):2323-2329.
52. Liu Z., Yang L., Mao Z., Zhuge W., Zhang Y., Wang L. Behavior of PEMFC in starvation. J Power Sources 2006, 157(1):166-176. [2006-06-19].
53. Tang H., Peikang S., Jiang S.P., Wang F., Pan M. A degradation study of Nafion proton exchange membrane of PEM fuel cells. J Power Sources 2007, 170(1):85-92. [2007-06-30].
54. Tian G., Wasterlain S., Endichi I., Candusso D., Harel F., François X., et al. Diagnosis methods dedicated to the localisation of failed cells within PEMFC stacks. J Power Sources 2008, 182(2):449-461. [2008-08-01].
55. Rabbani A., Rokni M. Effect of nitrogen crossover on purging strategy in PEM fuel cell systems. Appl Energy 2013, 111:1061-1070.
56. Yu Y., Tu Z., Zhang H., Zhan Z., Pan M. Comparison of degradation behaviors for open-ended and closed proton exchange membrane fuel cells during startup and shutdown cycles. J Power Sources 2011, 196(11):5077-5083.
57. Yu Y., Li H., Wang H., Yuan X., Wang G., Pan M. A review on performance degradation of proton exchange membrane fuel cells during startup and shutdown processes: causes, consequences, and mitigation strategies. J Power Sources 2012, 205(0):10-23. [2012-05-01].
58. Kulikovsky A.A., Scharmann H., Wippermann K. Dynamics of fuel cell performance degradation. Electrochem Commun 2004, 6(1):75-82.
59. Tang Y., Yuan W., Pan M., Wan Z. Experimental investigation on the dynamic performance of a hybrid PEM fuel cell/battery system for lightweight electric vehicle application. Appl Energy 2011, 88(1):68-76.
60. Espiari S, Aleyaasin M. Transient response of PEM fuel cells during sudden load change, Energy Conference and Exhibition (EnergyCon), 2010 IEEE International 2010;211-6 [2010-01-01].
61. Silva R.A., Hashimoto T., Thompson G.E., Rangel C.M. Characterization of MEA degradation for an open air cathode PEM fuel cell. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2012, 37(8):7299-7308. [2012-04-01].
62. Rong F., Huang C., Liu Z., Song D., Wang Q. Microstructure changes in the catalyst layers of PEM fuel cells induced by load cycling: Part I. Mechanical model. J Power Sources 2008, 175(2):699-711. [2008-01-10].
63. Rong F., Huang C., Liu Z., Song D., Wang Q. Microstructure changes in the catalyst layers of PEM fuel cells induced by load cycling: Part II. Simulation and understanding. J Power Sources 2008, 175(2):712-723. [2008-01-10].
64. Jung G., Chuang K., Jao T., Yeh C., Lin C. Study of high voltage applied to the membrane electrode assemblies of proton exchange membrane fuel cells as an accelerated degradation technique. Appl Energy 2012, 100:81-86.
65. Bose A., Babburi P., Kumar R., Myers D., Mawdsley J., Milhuff J. Performance of individual cells in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell stack under-load cycling conditions. J Power Sources 2013, 243(0):964-972. [2013-12-01].
66. Liu D., Case S. Durability study of proton exchange membrane fuel cells under dynamic testing conditions with cyclic current profile. J Power Sources 2006, 162(1):521-531. [2006-01-01].
67. Pei P., Chang Q., Tang T. A quick evaluating method for automotive fuel cell lifetime. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2008, 33(14):3829-3836.
68. Pei P., Yuan X., Li P., Chao P., Chang Q. Lifetime evaluating and the effects of operation conditions on automotive fuel cells. Chin J Mech Eng 2010, 23(1):66-71.
69. Lin R., Li B., Hou Y.P., Ma J.M. Investigation of dynamic driving cycle effect on performance degradation and micro-structure change of PEM fuel cell. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2009, 34(5):2369-2376.
70. Weng F., Hsu C., Li C. Experimental investigation of PEM fuel cell aging under current cycling using segmented fuel cell. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2010, 35(8):3664-3675.
71. Darab M., Dahlstrøm P.K., Thomassen M.S., Seland F., Sunde S. Dynamic electrochemical impedance spectroscopy of Pt/C-based membrane-electrode assemblies subjected to cycling protocols. J Power Sources 2013, 242(0):447-454. [2013-11-15].
72. Pei P., Yuan X., Chao P., Wang X. Analysis on the PEM fuel cells after accelerated life experiment. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2010, 35(7):3147-3151.
73. Mu S., Xu C., Gao Y., Tang H., Pan M. Accelerated durability tests of catalyst layers with various pore volume for catalyst coated membranes applied in PEM fuel cells. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2010, 35(7):2872-2876.
74. Kandlikar S.G., Garofalo M.L., Lu Z. Water management in a PEMFC: Water transport mechanism and material degradation in gas diffusion layers. Fuel Cells 2011, 11(6):814-823. [2011-01-01].
75. Le Canut J., Abouatallah R.M., Harrington D.A. Detection of membrane drying, fuel cell flooding, and anode catalyst poisoning on PEMFC stacks by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. J Electrochem Soc 2006, 153(5):A857-A864.
76. Van Nguyen T., Knobbe M.W. A liquid water management strategy for PEM fuel cell stacks. J Power Sources 2003, 114(1):70-79. [2003-02-25].
77. Schmittinger W., Vahidi A. A review of the main parameters influencing long-term performance and durability of PEM fuel cells. J Power Sources 2008, 180(1):1-14. [2008-01-01].
78. Yan Q., Toghiani H., Wu J. Investigation of water transport through membrane in a PEM fuel cell by water balance experiments. J Power Sources 2006, 158(1):316-325.
79. Li H., Tang Y., Wang Z., Shi Z., Wu S., Song D., et al. A review of water flooding issues in the proton exchange membrane fuel cell. J Power Sources 2008, 178(1):103-117. [2008-01-01].
80. Kadyk T., Hanke-Rauschenbach R., Sundmacher K. Nonlinear frequency response analysis of dehydration phenomena in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2012, 37(9):7689-7701. [2012-05-01].
81. Panha K., Fowler M., Yuan X., Wang H. Accelerated durability testing via reactants relative humidity cycling on PEM fuel cells. Appl Energy 2012, 93(0):90-97. [2012-05-01].
82. Riascos L.A. Relative humidity control in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells without extra humidification. J Power Sources 2008, 184(1):204-211.
83. He W., Lin G., Van Nguyen T. Diagnostic tool to detect electrode flooding in proton-exchange membrane fuel cells. AIChE J 2003, 49(12):3221-3228. [2003-01-01].
84. Pierre J.S., Wilkinson D., Knights S. Relationships between water management, contamination and lifetime degradation in PEMFC. J New Mater Electrochem Syst 2000, 3:99-106.
85. Ge S., Wang C. Liquid water formation and transport in the PEFC anode. J Electrochem Soc 2007, 154(10):B998-B1005.
86. Nguyen T.V., White R.E. A water and heat management model for Proton-Exchange-Membrane fuel cells. J Electrochem Soc 1993, 140(8):2178-2186.
87. Bazylak A. Liquid water visualization in PEM fuel cells: a review. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2009, 34(9):3845-3857. [2009-05-01].
88. Feindel K.W., Bergens S.H., Wasylishen R.E. Use of hydrogen-deuterium exchange for contrast in 1H NMR microscopy investigations of an operating PEM fuel cell. J Power Sources 2007, 173(1):86-95. [2007-11-08].
89. 2 proton-exchange membrane fuel cell using 1H NMR microscopy. J Am Chem Soc 2006, 128(43):14192-14199. [2006-01-01].
90. Park J., Li X., Tran D., Abdel-Baset T., Hussey D.S., Jacobson D.L., et al. Neutron imaging investigation of liquid water distribution in and the performance of a PEM fuel cell. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2008, 33(13):3373-3384. 2008-07-01.
91. Zhang J., Kramer D., Shimoi R., Ono Y., Lehmann E., Wokaun A., et al. In situ diagnostic of two-phase flow phenomena in polymer electrolyte fuel cells by neutron imaging: Part B. Material variations. Electrochim Acta 2006, 51(13):2715-2727. [2006-03-05].
92. Ludlow D.J., Calebrese C.M., Yu S.H., Dannehy C.S., Jacobson D.L., Hussey D.S., et al. PEM fuel cell membrane hydration measurement by neutron imaging. J Power Sources 2006, 162(1):271-278. [2006-11-08].
93. Nam J.H., Kaviany M. Effective diffusivity and water-saturation distribution in single- and two-layer PEMFC diffusion medium. Int J Heat Mass Transf 2003, 46(24):4595-4611. [2003-11-01].
94. Lim C., Wang C.Y. Effects of hydrophobic polymer content in GDL on power performance of a PEM fuel cell. Electrochim Acta 2004, 49(24):4149-4156. [2004-09-30].
95. Tobias A., Wiebke M., Tötzke C., Wannek C., Markötter H., Wieder F., et al. Synchrotron X-ray radioscopic in situ study of high-temperature polymer electrolyte fuel cells - effect of operation conditions on structure of membrane. J Power Sources 2014, 246:290-298. [2014-01-01].
96. Deevanhxay P., Sasabe T., Tsushima S., Hirai S. Observation of dynamic liquid water transport in the microporous layer and gas diffusion layer of an operating PEM fuel cell by high-resolution soft X-ray radiography. J Power Sources 2013, 230:38-43. [2013-01-01].
97. Dai W., Wang H., Yuan X.Z., Martin J.J., Luo Z., Pan M. Measurement of the water transport rate in a proton exchange membrane fuel cell and the influence of the gas diffusion layer. J Power Sources 2008, 185(2):1267-1271. [2008-01-01].
98. Barbir F., Gorgun H., Wang X. Relationship between pressure drop and cell resistance as a diagnostic tool for PEM fuel cells. J Power Sources 2005, 141(1):96-101. [2005-01-01].
99. Das P.K., Li X., Liu Z.S. Analysis of liquid water transport in cathode catalyst layer of PEM fuel cells. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2010, 35(6):2403-2416. [2010-01-01].
100. Pasaogullari U., Wang C.Y., Chen K.S. Two-phase transport in polymer electrolyte fuel cells with bilayer cathode gas diffusion media. J Electrochem Soc 2005, 152(8):A1574-A1582. [2005-01-01].
101. Ji M., Wei Z. A review of water management in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells. Energies 2009, 2(4):1057-1106. [2009-01-01].
102. Lin G., Van Nguyen T. A two-dimensional two-phase model of a PEM fuel cell. J Electrochem Soc 2006, 153(2):A372-A382. [2006-01-01].
103. Jiao K., Li X. Water transport in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells. Prog Energy Combust 2011, 37(3):221-291. [2011-01-01].
104. Pei P., Chao P., Yuan X. On-line failure diagnosis and auto-disposal for automotive PEMFC. Gaojishu Tongxin/Chin High Technol Lett 2009, 19(12):1294-1298. [2009-01-01].
105. Zhang J, Pei P. Study on the diagnosis of vehicle PEM Fuel Cell Membrane drying and water flooding, FISITA World Automotive Congress 2008, Congress Proceedings - Future Powertrain Solutions, v3 2008:228-37 [2008-01-01].
106. Barbir F, Wang X, Gorgun H. Pressure drop on the cathode side of a PEM fuel cell as a diagnostic tool for detection of flooding and drying conditions 2005:25-9 [2005-01-01].
107. Yousfi-Steiner N., Moçotéguy P., Candusso D., Hissel D., Hernandez A., Aslanides A. A review on PEM voltage degradation associated with water management: impacts, influent factors and characterization. J Power Sources 2008, 183(1):260-274.
108. Dai W., Wang H., Yuan X.Z., Martin J.J., Yang D., Qiao J., et al. A review on water balance in the membrane electrode assembly of proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2009, 34(23):9461-9478. [2009-01-01].
109. Büchi F.N., Scherer G.G. Investigation of the transversal water profile in nafion membranes in polymer electrolyte fuel cells. J Electrochem Soc 2001, 148(3):A183-A188. [2001-01-01].
110. Sridhar P. Humidification studies on polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell. Fuel Energy Abst 2002, 43(4):262. [2002-07-01].
111. Wang Y., Al Shakhshir S., Li X. Development and impact of sandwich wettability structure for gas distribution media on PEM fuel cell performance. Appl Energy 2011, 88(6):2168-2175. [2011-06-01].
112. Larminie J, Dicks A. Fuel cell system explained. 1st ed. John Wiley & Sons; 2000.
113. Natarajan D., Van Nguyen T. Current distribution in PEM fuel cells. Part 1: oxygen and fuel flow rate effects. AIChE J 2005, 51(9):2587-2598. [2005-01-01].
114. Cheng S., Miao J., Wu S. Use of metamodeling optimal approach promotes the performance of proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC). Appl Energy 2013, 105:161-169.
115. Hosseinzadeh E., Rokni M., Rabbani A., Mortensen H.H. Thermal and water management of low temperature Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell in fork-lift truck power system. Appl Energy 2013, 104:434-444.
116. Voss H.H., Wilkinson D.P., Pickup P.G., Johnson M.C., Basura V. Anode water removal: a water management and diagnostic technique for solid polymer fuel cells. Electrochim Acta 1995, 40(3):321-328. [1995-01-01].
117. Rodatz P., Büchi F., Onder C., Guzzella L. Operational aspects of a large PEFC stack under practical conditions. J Power Sources 2004, 128(2):208-217. [2004-04-05].
118. Tang H., Santamaria A.D., Bachman J., Park J.W. Vacuum-assisted drying of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell. Appl Energy 2013, 107:264-270. [2013-07-01].
119. Hakenjos A., Muenter H., Wittstadt U., Hebling C. A PEM fuel cell for combined measurement of current and temperature distribution, and flow field flooding. J Power Sources 2004, 131(1-2):213-216. [2004-01-01].
120. Fernández-Moreno J., Guelbenzu G., Martín A.J., Folgado M.A., Ferreira-Aparicio P., Chaparro A.M. A portable system powered with hydrogen and one single air-breathing PEM fuel cell. Appl Energy 2013, 109:60-66.
121. Wahdame B., Candusso D., François X., Harel F., Péra M.C., Hissel D., et al. Comparison between two PEM fuel cell durability tests performed at constant current and under solicitations linked to transport mission profile. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2007, 32(17):4523-4536. [2007-01-01].
122. Nguyen T.V. A gas distributor design for proton-exchange-membrane fuel cells. J Electrochem Soc 1996, 143(5):L103-L105. 1996-01-01.
123. Wood D.L., Yi J.S., Nguyen T.V. Effect of direct liquid water injection and interdigitated flow field on the performance of proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Electrochim Acta 1998, 43(24):3795-3809. [1998-01-01].
124. Liu X., Guo H., Ma C. Water flooding and two-phase flow in cathode channels of proton exchange membrane fuel cells. J Power Sources 2006, 156(2):267-280. [2006-06-01].
125. Jiao K., Park J., Li X. Experimental investigations on liquid water removal from the gas diffusion layer by reactant flow in a PEM fuel cell. Appl Energy 2010, 87(9):2770-2777.
126. Shimpalee S., Beuscher U., Van Zee J.W. Analysis of GDL flooding effects on PEMFC performance. Electrochim Acta 2007, 52(24):6748-6754. [2007-01-01].
127. Lin C., Tsai S. An investigation of coated aluminium bipolar plates for PEMFC. Appl Energy 2012, 100:87-92.
128. Qin Y., Li X., Jiao K., Du Q., Yin Y. Effective removal and transport of water in a PEM fuel cell flow channel having a hydrophilic plate. Appl Energy 2014, 113:116-126.
129. Andreaus B., McEvoy A.J., Scherer G.G. Analysis of performance losses in polymer electrolyte fuel cells at high current densities by impedance spectroscopy. Electrochim Acta 2002, 47(13-14):2223-2229. [2002-01-01].
130. Chen F., Su Y.G., Soong C.Y., Yan W.M., Chu H.S. Transient behavior of water transport in the membrane of a PEM fuel cell. J Electroanal Chem 2004, 566(1):85-93. [2004-01-01].
131. Kim Y.B., Kang S.J. Time delay control for fuel cells with bidirectional DC/DC converter and battery. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2010, 35(16):8792-8803. [2010-01-01].
132. Loo K.H., Wong K.H., Tan S.C., Lai Y.M., Tse C.K. Characterization of the dynamic response of proton exchange membrane fuel cells - a numerical study. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2010, 35(21):11861-11877. [2010-11-01].
133. Hamelin J., Agbossou K., Laperrière A., Laurencelle F., Bose T.K. Dynamic behavior of a PEM fuel cell stack for stationary applications. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2001, 26(6):625-629. [2001-06-01].
134. Kim S., Shimpalee S., Van Zee J.W. The effect of stoichiometry on dynamic behavior of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) during load change. J Power Sources 2004, 135(1):110-121.
135. Kim S., Shimpalee S., Van Zee J.W. The effect of reservoirs and fuel dilution on the dynamic behavior of a PEMFC. J Power Sources 2004, 137(1):43-52. [2004-10-05].
136. Tang Y., Yuan W., Pan M., Li Z., Chen G., Li Y. Experimental investigation of dynamic performance and transient responses of a kW-class PEM fuel cell stack under various load changes. Appl Energy 2010, 87(4):1410-1417. [2010-04-01].
137. Da Fonseca R., Bideaux E., Gerard M., Jeanneret B., Desbois-Renaudin M., Sari A. Control of PEMFC system air group using differential flatness approach: validation by a dynamic fuel cell system model. Appl Energy 2014, 113:219-229. [2014-01-01].
138. Meidanshahi V., Karimi G. Dynamic modeling, optimization and control of power density in a PEM fuel cell. Appl Energy 2012, 93:98-105. [2012-05-01].
139. Yerramalla S., Davari A., Feliachi A., Biswas T. Modeling and simulation of the dynamic behavior of a polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell. J Power Sources 2003, 124(1):104-113. [2003-10-01].
140. Pathapati P.R., Xue X., Tang J. A new dynamic model for predicting transient phenomena in a PEM fuel cell system. Renew Energy 2005, 30(1):1-22. [2005-01-01].
141. Cho J., Park J., Oh H., Min K., Lee E., Jyoung J. Analysis of the transient response and durability characteristics of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell with different micro-porous layer penetration thicknesses. Appl Energy 2013, 111:300-309. [2013-11-01].
142. Kim B., Lee Y., Woo A., Kim Y. Effects of cathode channel size and operating conditions on the performance of air-blowing PEMFCs. Appl Energy 2013, 111:441-448. [2013-11-01].
143. Hsu C., Weng F., Su A., Wang C., Hussaini I.S., Feng T. Transient phenomenon of step switching for current or voltage in PEMFC. Renew Energy 2009, 34(8):1979-1985.
144. Yan X., Hou M., Sun L., Cheng H., Hong Y., Liang D., et al. The study on transient characteristic of proton exchange membrane fuel cell stack during dynamic loading. J Power Sources 2007, 163(2):966-970.
145. Cho J., Kim H., Min K. Transient response of a unit proton-exchange membrane fuel cell under various operating conditions. J Power Sources 2008, 185(1):118-128.
146. Halalay I.C., Swathirajan S., Merzougui B., Balogh M.P., Garabedian G.C., Carpenter M.K. Anode materials for mitigating hydrogen starvation effects in PEM fuel cells. J Electrochem Soc 2011, 158(3):B313-B321. [2011-01-01].
147. Piersma B.J., Warner T.B., Schuldiner S. Interaction of carbon dioxide with hydrogen chemisorbed on a platinum electrode. J Electrochem Soc 1966, 113(8):841-846.
148. Yousfi-Steiner N., Moçotéguy P., Candusso D., Hissel D. A review on polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell catalyst degradation and starvation issues: causes, consequences and diagnostic for mitigation. J Power Sources 2009, 194(1):130-145. [2009-01-01].
149. Damjanovic A., Brusic V. Electrode kinetics of oxygen reduction on oxide-free platinum electrodes. Electrochim Acta 1967, 12(6):615-628.
150. Sepa D.B., Vojnovic M.V., Damjanovic A. Reaction intermediates as a controlling factor in the kinetics and mechanism of oxygen reduction at platinum electrodes. Electrochim Acta 1981, 26(6):781-793.
151. Xu H., Song Y., Kunz H.R., Fenton J.M. Effect of elevated temperature and reduced relative humidity on ORR kinetics for PEM fuel cells. J Electrochem Soc 2005, 152(9):A1828-A1836.
152. Ball S.C., Hudson S.L., Thompsett D., Theobald B. An investigation into factors affecting the stability of carbons and carbon supported platinum and platinum/cobalt alloy catalysts during 1.2V potentiostatic hold regimes at a range of temperatures. J Power Sources 2007, 171(1):18-25.
153. Hoare J.P. Rest potentials in the platinum-oxygen-acid system. J Electrochem Soc 1962, 109(9):858-865.
154. Yoda T., Uchida H., Watanabe M. Effects of operating potential and temperature on degradation of electrocatalyst layer for PEFCs. Electrochim Acta 2007, 52(19):5997-6005.
155. Atanasoski R. Role of catalysts durability in PEM, fuel cells; 241st ACS National meeting and Exposition 2011 [2011-01-01].
156. Ohs J.H., Sauter U., Maass S., Stolten D. Modeling hydrogen starvation conditions in proton-exchange membrane fuel cells. J Power Sources 2011, 196(1):255-263. [2011-01-01].
157. Li P., Pei P., He Y., Yuan X. A starvation diagnosis method for a PEM fuel cell during dynamic loading. Gaojishu Tongxin/Chin High Technol Lett 2013, 23(2):189-195. [2013-01-01].
158. Yang X.G., Ye Q., Cheng P. Hydrogen pumping effect induced by fuel starvation in a single cell of a PEM fuel cell stack at galvanostatic operation. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2012, 37(19):14439-14453. [2012-01-01].
159. Hu J, Sui PC, Kumar S, Djilali N. Modelling of carbon corrosion in a PEMFC caused by local fuel starvation ECS Transactions 2007. p. 1031-9 [2007-01-01].
160. Sakamoto S., Karakane M., Maeda H. Study of the factors affecting PEMFC life characteristic. Abst Fuel Cell Semin 2000, 141-144.
161. Kang J., Jung D.W., Park S., Lee J., Ko J., Kim J. Accelerated test analysis of reversal potential caused by fuel starvation during PEMFCs operation. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2010, 35(8):3727-3735.
162. Patterson T.W., Darling R.M. Damage to the cathode catalyst of a PEM fuel cell caused by localized fuel starvation. Electrochem Solid-State Lett 2006, 9(4):A183-A185. [2006-01-01].
163. Madhusudana Rao R., Rengaswamy R. A distributed dynamic model for chronoamperometry, chronopotentiometry and gas starvation studies in PEM fuel cell cathode. Chem Eng Sci 2006, 61(22):7393-7409.
164. Shen Q., Hou M., Yan X., Liang D., Zang Z., Hao L., et al. The voltage characteristics of proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) under steady and transient states. J Power Sources 2008, 179(1):292-296.
165. Natarajan D., Van Nguyen T. Current distribution in PEM fuel cells. Part 2: Air operation and temperature effect. AIChE J 2005, 51(9):2599-2608. [2005-01-01].
166. Barton RH. Invento cell voltage monitor for a fuel cell stack. United States Patent; 2004.
167. Baumgartner W.R., Parz P., Fraser S.D., Wallnöfer E., Hacker V. Polarization study of a PEMFC with four reference electrodes at hydrogen starvation conditions. J Power Sources 2008, 182(2):413-421. [2008-01-01].
168. Reiser CA. Invento preventing fuel starvation of a fuel cell stack. United States Patent 2005.
169. He J., Ahn J., Choe S.Y. Analysis and control of a fuel delivery system considering a two-phase anode model of the polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell stack. J Power Sources 2011, 196(10):4655-4670. [2011-01-01].
170. Ahn JW, He J, Choe SY. Design of air, water, temperature and hydrogen controls for a PEM fuel cell system, ASME 2011 9th International conference on Fuel Cell Science, Engineering and Technology 2011. p. 711-8 [2011-01-01].