Influences of gender identity on children's maltreatment of gender-nonconforming peers: A person × target analysis of aggression

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Volumn 106, Issue 5, 2014, Pages 843-866

  Pauletti, Rachel E ^a   Cooper, Patrick J ^a   Perry, David G ^a  

^a FLORIDA ATLANTIC UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Aggression; Gender identity; Gender nonconformity; Person situation interaction; Victimization

Indexed keywords

AGGRESSION; CHILD; FEMALE; GENDER IDENTITY; HUMAN; MALE; PEER GROUP; PSYCHOLOGY; SELF CONCEPT; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR;

AGGRESSION; CHILD; FEMALE; GENDER IDENTITY; HUMANS; MALE; PEER GROUP; SELF CONCEPT; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR;

EID: 84898782403     PISSN: 00223514     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0036037     Document Type: Article

References (86)

1. Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
2. Ashmore, R. D., Deaux, K., & McLaughlin-Volpe, T. (2004). An framework for collective identity: Articulation and significance of multidimensionality. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 80-114. doi:10.1037/ 0033-2909.130.1.80
3. Barry, C. T., Frick, P. J., & Killian, A. L. (2003). The relation of narcissism and self-esteem to conduct problems in children: A preliminary investigation. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 139-152. doi:10.1207/15374420360533130
4. Baumeister, R. F. (1998). The self. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (pp. 680-740). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
5. Baumeister, R. F., Smart, L., & Boden, J. M. (1996). Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem. Psychological Review, 103, 5-33. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.103.1.5
6. Bem, S. (1981). Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex-typing. Psychological Review, 88, 354-364. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.88.4.354
7. Bernat, J. A., Calhoun, K. S., Adams, H. E., & Zeichner, A. (2001). Homophobia and physical aggression toward homosexual and heterosexual individuals. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 179-187. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.110.1.179
8. Berndt, T. J., & Heller, K. A. (1986). Gender stereotypes and social inferences: A developmental study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 889-898. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.50.5.889
9. Carver, C. S., Lawrence, J. W., & Scheier, M. F. (1999). Self-discrepancies and affect: Incorporating the role of feared selves. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 783-792. doi:10.1177/ 0146167299025007002
10. Carver, P. R., Egan, S. K., & Perry, D. G. (2004). Children who question their heterosexuality. Developmental Psychology, 40, 43-53. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.40.1.43
11. Carver, P. R., Yunger, J. L., & Perry, D. G. (2003). Gender identity and adjustment in middle childhood. Sex Roles, 49, 95-109. doi:10.1023/A: 1024423012063
12. Cervone, D. (2004). The architecture of personality. Psychological Review, 111, 183-204. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.111.1.183
13. Coie, J. D., Cillessen, A. H. N., Dodge, K. A., Hubbard, J. A., Schwartz, D., Lemerise, E. A., & Bateman, H. (1999). It takes two to fight: A test of relational factors and a method for assessing aggressive dyads. Developmental Psychology, 35, 1179-1188. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.35.5 .1179
14. Corby, B. C., Hodges, E. V. E., & Perry, D. G. (2007). Gender identity and adjustment in Black, Hispanic, and White preadolescents. Developmental Psychology, 43, 261-266. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.1.261
15. Crick, N. R., Grotpeter, J. K., & Bigbee, M. A. (2002). Relationally and physically aggressive children's intent attributions and feelings of distress for relational and instrumental peer provocations. Child Development, 73, 1134-1142. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00462
16. Delveaux, K. D., & Daniels, T. (2000). Children's social cognitions: Physically and relationally aggressive strategies and children's goals in peer conflict situations. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 46, 672-692.
17. Donnellan, M. B., Trzesniewski, K. H., Robins, R. W., Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (2005). Low self-esteem is related to aggression, antisocial behavior, and delinquency. Psychological Science, 16, 328-335. doi: 10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.01535.x
18. Egan, S. K., & Perry, D. G. (1998). Does low self-regard invite victimization?. Developmental Psychology, 34, 299-309. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.34.2.299
19. Egan, S. K., & Perry, D. G. (2001). Gender identity: A multidimensional analysis with implications for psychosocial adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 37, 451-463. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.37.4.451
20. Eisler, R. M., & Skidmore, J. R. (1987). Masculine gender role stress: Scale development and component factors in the appraisal of stressful situations. Behavior Modification, 11, 123-136. doi:10.1177/ 01454455870112001
21. Fagot, B. I. (1977). Consequences of moderate cross-gender behavior in preschool children. Child Development, 48, 902-907. doi:10.2307/ 1128339
22. Fournier, M. A., Moskowitz, D. S., & Zuroff, D. C. (2008). Integrating dispositions, signatures, and the interpersonal domain. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 531-545. doi:10.1037/0022-3514 .94.3.531
23. Franchina, J. J., Eisler, R. M., & Moore, T. M. (2001). Masculine gender role stress and intimate abuse: Effects of masculine gender relevance of dating situations and female threat on men's attributions and affective responses. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 2, 34-41. doi:10.1037/ 1524-9220.2.1.34
24. Harter, S. (1985). The Self-Perception Profile for Children: Revision of the Perceived Competence Scale for Children (manual). Denver, CO: University of Denver.
25. Harter, S. (2006). The self. In W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Series Eds.) & N. Eisenberg (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., pp. 505-570). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
26. Harter, S., & McCarley, K. (2004, August). Is there a dark side to high self-esteem leading to adolescent violence?. Poster session presented at the American Psychological Association Convention, Honolulu, HI.
27. Herek, G. M. (1988). Heterosexuals' attitudes toward lesbians and gay men: Correlates and gender differences. Journal of Sex Research, 25, 451-477. doi:10.1080/00224498809551476
28. Herek, G. M. (2000). The psychology of sexual prejudice. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9, 19-22. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00051
29. Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94, 319-340. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.94.3.319
30. Hodges, E. V. E., Peets, K., & Salmivalli, C. (2009). A Person Situation approach to understanding aggressive behavior and underlying aggressogenic thought. In M. J. Harris (Ed.), Bullying, rejection, and peer victimization: A social cognitive neuroscience perspective (pp. 125-150). New York, NY: Springer.
31. Hodges, E. V. E., & Perry, D. G. (1999). Personal and interpersonal antecedents and consequences of victimization by peers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 677-685. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.76.4.677
32. Kimmel, M. S. (1994). Masculinity and homophobia: Fear, shame and silence in the construction of gender identity. In H. Brod & M. Kaufman (Eds.), Theorizing masculinities (pp. 119 -141). doi:10.4135/ 9781452243627.n7
33. Kimmel, M. S., & Mahler, M. (2003). Adolescent masculinity, homophobia, and violence: Random school shootings, 1982-2001. American Behavioral Scientist, 46, 1439-1458. doi:10.1177/0002764203046010010
34. Kipnis, D. (1976). The powerholders. Oxford, England: University of Chicago Press.
35. Kite, M. E., & Whitley, B. E. (1996). Sex differences in attitudes toward homosexual persons, behaviors, and civil rights: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 336-353. doi:10.1177/ 0146167296224002
36. Lampinen, T. M., Chan, K., Anema, A., Miller, M. L., Schilder, A. J., Schecter, M. T., . . . Strathdee, S. A. (2008). Incidence of and risk factors for sexual orientation-related physical assault among young men who have sex with men. American Journal of Public Health, 98, 1028-1035. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2007.122705
37. Langlois, J. H., & Downs, A. C. (1980). Mothers, fathers, and peers as socialization agents of sex-typed play behaviors in young children. Child Development, 51, 1237-1247. doi:10.2307/1129566
38. Levant, R. F. (2011). Research in the psychology of men and masculinity using the gender role strain paradigm as a framework. American Psychologist, 66, 765-776. doi:10.1037/a0025034
39. Lobel, T. E. (1994). Sex typing and the social perception of gender stereotypic and nonstereotypic behavior: The uniqueness of feminine males. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 379-385. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.66.2.379
40. Matthys, W., Maassen, G. H., Cuperus, J. M., & Van Engeland, H. (2001). The assessment of the situational specificity of children's problem behaviour in peer-peer context. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 413-420. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00734
41. Mischel, W., & Shoda, Y. (1995). A cognitive-affective system theory of personality: Reconceptualizing situations, dispositions, dynamics, and invariance in personality structure. Psychological Review, 102, 246-268. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.102.2.246
42. Mischel, W., & Shoda, Y. (2008). Toward a unified theory of personality: Integrating dispositions and processing dynamics within the cognitiveaffective processing system. In O. P. John & R. W. Robins (Eds.), Handbook of personality (pp. 208-241). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
43. Mishna, F., Newman, P. A., Daley, A., & Solomon, S. (2009). Bullying of lesbian and gay youth: A qualitative investigation. British Journal of Social Work, 39, 1598-1614. doi:10.1093/bjsw/bcm148
44. Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Rutter, M., & Silva, P. A. (2001). Sex differences in antisocial behaviour: Conduct disorder, delinquency, and violence in the Dunedin Longitudinal Study. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
45. Moller, L. C., Hymel, S., & Rubin, K. H. (1992). Sex typing in play and popularity in middle childhood. Sex Roles, 26, 331-353. doi:10.1007/ BF00289916
46. Morf, C. C., & Rhodewalt, F. (2001). Unraveling the paradoxes of narcissism: A dynamic self-regulatory processing model. Psychological Inquiry, 12, 177-196. doi:10.1207/S15327965PLI1204_1
47. Nezlek, J. B. (2011). Multilevel modeling analyses of diary-style data. In M. R. Mehl & T. S. Connor (Eds.), Handbook of research methods for studying daily life (pp. 357-383). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
48. O'Moore, M., & Kirkham, C. (2001). Self-esteem and its relationship to bullying behavior. Aggressive Behavior, 27, 269-283. doi:10.1002/ab .1010
49. Ostrov, J. M., & Godleski, S. A. (2010). Toward an integrated genderlinked model of aggression subtypes in early and middle childhood. Psychological Review, 117, 233-242. doi:10.1037/a0018070
50. Parrott, D. J. (2009). Aggression toward gay men as gender role enforcement: Effects of male role norms, sexual prejudice, and masculine gender role stress. Journal of Personality, 77, 1137-1166. doi:10.1111/ j.1467-6494.2009.00577.x
51. Parrott, D. J., Adams, H. E., & Zeichner, A. (2002). Homophobia: Personality and attitudinal correlates. Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 1269-1278. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00117-9
52. Parrott, D. J., & Gallagher, K. E. (2008). What accounts for heterosexual women's negative emotional responses to lesbians? Examination of traditional gender role beliefs and sexual prejudice. Sex Roles, 59, 229-239. doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9436-0
53. Pauletti, R. E., Menon, M., Menon, M., Tobin, D. D., & Perry, D. G. (2012). Narcissism and adjustment in preadolescence. Child Development, 83, 831-837. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01731.x
54. Peets, K., Hodges, E. V. E., & Salmivalli, C. (2011). Relationship specificity of aggressogenic thought-behavior processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 386-400. doi:10.1037/a0023662
55. Pettit, G. S., Lansford, J. E., Malone, P. S., Dodge, K. A., & Bates, J. E. (2010). Domain specificity in relationship history, social-information processing, and violent behavior in early adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98, 190-200. doi:10.1037/a0017991
56. Pettit, G. S., & Mize, J. (2007). Social-cognitive processes in the development of antisocial and violent behavior. In D. J. Flannery, A. T. Vazsonyi, & I. D. Waldman (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of violent behavior and aggression (pp. 322-343). doi:10.1017/CBO9780511816840.016
57. Poteat, V. P., Espelage, D. L., & Green, H. D. (2007). The socialization of dominance: Peer group contextual effects on homophobic and dominance attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 1040-1050. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1040
58. Powlishta, K. K. (1995). Gender bias in children's perceptions of personality traits. Sex Roles, 32, 17-28. doi:10.1007/BF01544755
59. Pryor, J. B., & Whalen, N. J. (1997). A typology of sexual harassment: Characteristics of harassers and the social circumstances under which sexual harassment occurs. In W. O'Donohue (Ed.), Sexual harassment: Theory, research, and treatment (pp. 129-151). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
60. Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
61. Read, S. J., Monroe, B. M., Brownstein, A. L., Yang, Y., Chopra, G., & Miller, L. C. (2010). A neural network model of the structure and dynamics of human personality. Psychological Review, 117, 61-92. doi:10.1037/a0018131
62. Rodkin, P. C., & Berger, C. (2008). Who bullies whom? Social status asymmetries by victim gender. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 32, 473-485. doi:10.1177/0165025408093667
63. Rodkin, P. C., Ryan, A. M., Jamison, R., & Wilson, T. (2013). Social goals, social behavior, and social status in middle childhood. Developmental Psychology, 49, 1139-1150. doi:10.1037/a0029389
64. Rose, A. J., Glick, G. G., & Smith, R. L. (2011). Popularity and gender: The culture of boys and girls. In A. H. N. Cillessen, D. Schwartz, & L. Mayeux (Eds.), Popularity in the peer system (pp. 103-122). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
65. Rose, A. J., & Rudolph, K. D. (2006). A review of sex differences in peer relationship processes: Potential trade-offs for the emotional and behavioral development of girls and boys. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 98-131. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.98
66. Ruble, D. N., Martin, C. L., & Berenbaum, S. A. (2006). Gender development. In W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Series Eds.) & N. Eisenberg, W. Damon, & R. M. Lerner (Vol. Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., ). New York, NY: Wiley.
67. Rudolph, K. D., Abaied, J. L., Flynn, M., Sugimura, N., & Agoston, A. M. (2011). Developing relationships, being cool, and not looking like a loser: Social goal orientation predicts children's responses to peer aggression. Child Development, 82, 1518-1530. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624 .2011.01631.x
68. Sainio, M., Veenstra, R., Huitsing, G., & Salmivalli, C. (2012). Same-and other-sex victimization: Are the risk factors similar? Aggressive Behavior, 38, 442-455. doi:10.1002/ab.21445
69. Smith, T. E., & Leaper, C. (2006). Self-perceived gender typicality and the peer context during adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16, 91-104. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2006.00123.x
70. Spence, J. T. (1993). Gender-related traits and gender ideology: Evidence for a multifactorial theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 624-635. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.64.4.624
71. Stark, L. P. (1991). Traditional gender role beliefs and individual outcomes: An exploratory analysis. Sex Roles, 24, 639-650. doi:10.1007/ BF00288419
72. Swann, W. B., & Bosson, J. K. (2008). Identity negotiation: A theory of self and social interaction. In O. P. John, R. W. Robins, & L. A. Pervin (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 448-471). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
73. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33-47). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
74. Tangney, J. P., Wagner, P., Fletcher, C., & Gramzow, R. (1992). Shamed into anger? The relation of shame and guilt to anger and self-reported aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 669-675. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.62.4.669
75. Thomaes, S., & Bushman, B. J. (2011). Mirror, mirror, on the wall, who's the most aggressive of them all? Narcissism, self-esteem, and aggression. In P. R. Shaver & M. Mikulincer (Eds.), Human aggression and violence: Causes, manifestations, and consequences (pp. 203-219). doi: 10.1037/12346-011
76. Thomaes, S., Bushman, B. J., Stegge, H., & Olthof, T. (2008). Trumping shame by blasts of noise: Narcissism, self-esteem, shame, and aggression in young adolescents. Child Development, 79, 1792-1801. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01226.x
77. Thompson, E. H., Grisanti, C., & Pleck, J. H. (1985). Attitudes toward the male role and their correlates. Sex Roles, 13, 413-427. doi:10.1007/ BF00287952
78. Tobin, D. D., Menon, M., Menon, M., Spatta, B. C., Hodges, E. V. E., & Perry, D. G. (2010). The intrapsychics of gender: A model of selfsocialization. Psychological Review, 117, 601-622. doi:10.1037/ a0018936
79. Toomey, R. B., Ryan, C., Diaz, R. M., Card, N. A., & Russell, S. T. (2010). Gender-nonconforming lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth: School victimization and young adult psychosocial adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 46, 1580-1589. doi:10.1037/a0020705
80. Underwood, M. K. (2003). Social aggression among girls. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
81. Vandello, J. A., Bosson, J. K., Cohen, D., Burnaford, R. M., & Weaver, J. R. (2008). Precarious manhood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 1325-1339. doi:10.1037/a0012453
82. Veenstra, R., Lindenberg, S., Zijlstra, B. J. H., De Winter, A. F., Verhulst, F. C., & Ormel, J. (2007). The dyadic nature of bullying and victimization: Testing a dual-perspective theory. Child Development, 78, 1843-1854. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01102.x
83. Walls, N. E., Kane, S. B., & Wisneski, H. (2010). Gay-straight alliances and school experiences of sexual minority youth. Youth & Society, 41, 307-332. doi:10.1177/0044118X09334957
84. Whitley, B. E. (2001). Gender-role variables and attitudes toward homosexuality. Sex Roles, 45, 691-721. doi:10.1023/A:1015640318045
85. Yunger, J. L., Carver, P. R., & Perry, D. G. (2004). Does gender identity influence children's psychological well-being?. Developmental Psychology, 40, 572-582. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.4.572
86. Zakriski, A. L., Wright, J. C., & Underwood, M. K. (2005). Gender similarities and differences in children's social behavior: Finding personality in contextualized patterns of adaptation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 844-855. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.5.844