Meta-analysis of the age-related positivity effect: Age differences in preferences for positive over negative information

Psychology and Aging

Volumn 29, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 1-15

  Reed, Andrew E ^a   Chan, Larry ^a   Mikels, Joseph A ^b  

^a STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b DEPAUL UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Aging; Emotion; Information processing; Meta analysis; Positivity effect

Indexed keywords

AGE; AGING; ARTICLE; ATTENTION; COGNITION; EFFECT SIZE; EMOTION; HUMAN; INFORMATION PROCESSING; INFORMATION PROCESSING BIAS; LIFESPAN; MEMORY; META ANALYSIS; METHODOLOGY; PATIENT PREFERENCE; RELIABILITY; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; THEORY;

ADULT; AGE FACTORS; AGED; AGING; ATTENTION; COGNITION; EMOTIONS; EMPIRICAL RESEARCH; HUMANS; MEMORY; REPRODUCIBILITY OF RESULTS; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 84897832249     PISSN: 08827974     EISSN: 19391498     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0035194     Document Type: Article

References (111)

1. Allard, E. S, & Isaacowitz, D. M. (2008). Are preferences in emotional processing affected by distraction? Examining the age-related positivity effect in visual fixation within a dual-task paradigm. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 15, 725-743. doi:10.1080/13825580802348562
2. Bannerman, R. L., Regener, P., & Sahraie, A. (2011). Binocular rivalry: A window into emotional processing in aging. Psychology and Aging, 26, 372-380. doi:10.1037/a0022029
3. Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Finkenauer, C., & Vohs, K. D. (2001). Bad is stronger than good. Review of General Psychology, 5, 323-370. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.5.4.323
4. Becker, B. J. (1988). Synthesizing standardized mean-change measures. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 41, 257-278. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8317.1988.tb00901.x
5. Borenstein, M. (2009). Effect sizes for continuous data. In H. Cooper, L. V. Hedges, & J. C. Valentine (Eds.), The handbook of research synthesis and meta-analysis (2nd ed.; pp. 221-235). New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
6. Brassen, S., Gamer, M., & Büchel, C. (2011). Anterior cingulate activation is related to a positivity bias and emotional stability in successful aging. Biological Psychiatry, 70, 131-137. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010 .10.013
7. Broster, L. S., Blonder, L. X., & Jiang, Y. (2012). Does emotional memory enhancement assist the memory-impaired?. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 4, 2. doi:10.3389/fnagi.2012.00002
8. Cacioppo, J. T., Berntson, G. G., Bechara, A., Tranel, D., & Hawkley, L. C. (2011). Could an aging brain contribute to subjective well-being? The value added by a social neuroscience perspective. In A. Todorov, S. T. Fiske, & D. A. Prentice (Eds.), Social neuroscience: Toward understanding the underpinnings of the social mind (pp. 249-262). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
9. Carstensen, L. L. (2006). The influence of a sense of time on human development. Science, 312, 1913-1915. doi:10.1126/science.1127488
10. Carstensen, L. L., & Mikels, J. A. (2005). At the intersection of emotion and cognition: Aging and the positivity effect. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14, 117-121. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005 .00348.x
11. Carstensen, L. L., Pasupathi, M., Mayr, U., & Nesselroade, J. R. (2000). Emotional experience in everyday life across the adult life span. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 644-655. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.79.4.644
12. Charles, S. T., & Carstensen, L. L. (2010). Social and emotional aging. Annual Review of Psychology, 61, 383-409. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych .093008.100448
13. Charles, S. T., Mather, M., & Carstensen, L. L. (2003). Aging and emotional memory: The forgettable nature of negative images for older adults. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 132, 310-324. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.132.2.310
14. Chung, C. (2010). Effects of view of life and selection bias on emotional memory in old age. GeroPsych, 23, 161-168. doi:10.1024/1662-9647/ a000019
15. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
16. Comblain, C., D'Argembeau, A., Van der Linden, M., & Aldenhoff, L. (2004). The effect of ageing on the recollection of emotional and neutral pictures. Memory, 12, 673-684. doi:10.1080/09658210344000477
17. D'Argembeau, A., & Van der Linden, M. (2004). Identity but not expression memory for unfamiliar faces is affected by ageing. Memory, 12, 644-654. doi:10.1080/09658210344000198
18. Duval, S., & Tweedie, R. (2000). Trim and fill: A simple funnel-plot-based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Biometrics, 56, 455-463. doi:10.1111/j.0006-341X.2000.00455.x
19. Ebner, N. C., & Johnson, M. K. (2009). Young and older emotional faces: Are there age group differences in expression identification and memory?. Emotion, 9, 329-339. doi:10.1037/a0015179
20. Ebner, N. C., & Johnson, M. K. (2010). Age-group differences in interference from young and older emotional faces. Cognition and Emotion, 24, 1095-1116. doi:10.1080/02699930903128395
21. Ebner, N. C., Johnson, M. K., & Fischer, H. (2012). Neural mechanisms of reading facial emotions in young and older adults. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 1-19.
22. Egger, M., Smith, G. D., Schneider, M., & Minder, C. (1997). Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. British Medical Journal, 315, 629-634. doi:10.1136/bmj.315.7109.629
23. Emery, L., & Hess, T. M. (2008). Viewing instructions impact emotional memory differently in older and young adults. Psychology and Aging, 23, 2-12. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.23.1.2
24. Emery, L., & Hess, T. M. (2011). Cognitive consequences of expressive regulation in older adults. Psychology and Aging, 26, 388-396. doi: 10.1037/a0020041
25. Fan, J., McCandliss, B. D., Sommer, T., Raz, A., & Posner, M. I. (2002). Testing the efficiency and independence of attentional networks. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14, 340-347. doi: 10.1162/089892902317361886
26. Feng, M. C., Courtney, C. G., Mather, M., Dawson, M. E., & Davison, G. C. (2011). Age-related affective modulation of the startle eyeblink response: Older adults startle most when viewing positive pictures. Psychology and Aging, 26, 752-760. doi:10.1037/a0023110
27. Ferguson, C. J., & Brannick, M. T. (2012). Publication bias in psychological science: Prevalence, methods for identifying and controlling, and implications for the use of meta-analyses. Psychological Methods, 17, 120-128. doi:10.1037/a0024445
28. Fernandes, M., Ross, M., Wiegand, M., & Schryer, E. (2008). Are the memories of older adults positively biased?. Psychology and Aging, 23, 297-306. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.23.2.297
29. Fleming, K., Kim, S. H., Doo, M., Maguire, G., & Potkin, S. G. (2003). Memory for emotional stimuli in patients with Alzheimer's disease. American Journal of Alzheimer's Disease and Other Dementias, 18, 340-342. doi:10.1177/153331750301800604
30. Fung, H. H., Isaacowitz, D. M., Lu, A. Y., & Li, T. (2010). Interdependent self-construal moderates the age-related negativity reduction effect in memory and visual attention. Psychology and Aging, 25, 321-329. doi:10.1037/a0019079
31. Fung, H. H., Lu, A. Y., Goren, D., Isaacowitz, D. M., Wadlinger, H. A., & Wilson, H. R. (2008). Age-related positivity enhancement is not universal: Older Chinese look away from positive stimuli. Psychology and Aging, 23, 440-446. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.23.2.440
32. Gallo, D. A., Foster, K. T., & Johnson, E. L. (2009). Elevated false recollection of emotional pictures in young and older adults. Psychology and Aging, 24, 981-988. doi:10.1037/a0017545
33. Goeleven, E., De Raedt, R., & Dierckx, E. (2010). The positivity effect in older adults: The role of affective interference and inhibition. Aging & Mental Health, 14, 129-137. doi:10.1080/13607860903228754
34. Grady, C. L., Keightley, M., Hongwanishkul, D., Lee, W., & Hasher, L. (2007). The effect of age on memory for emotional faces. Neuropsychology, 21, 371-380. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.21.3.371
35. Grühn, D., & Scheibe, S. (2008). Age-related differences in valence and arousal ratings of pictures from the International Affective Picture System (IAPS): Do ratings become more extreme with age?. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 512-521. doi:10.3758/BRM.40.2.512
36. Grühn, D., Scheibe, S., & Baltes, P. B. (2007). Reduced negativity effect in older adults' memory for emotional pictures: The heterogeneityhomogeneity list paradigm. Psychology and Aging, 22, 644-649. doi: 10.1037/0882-7974.22.3.644
37. Grühn, D., Smith, J., & Baltes, P. B. (2005). No aging bias favoring memory for positive material: Evidence from a heterogeneityhomogeneity list paradigm using emotionally toned words. Psychology and Aging, 20, 579-588. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.20.4.579
38. Hahn, S., Carlson, C., Singer, S., & Gronlund, S. D. (2006). Aging and visual search: Automatic and controlled attentional bias to threat faces. Acta Psychologica, 123, 312-336. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2006.01.008
39. Isaacowitz, D. M., Toner, K., Goren, D., & Wilson, H. R. (2008). Looking while unhappy mood-congruent gaze in young adults, positive gaze in older adults. Psychological Science, 19, 848-853. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02167.x
40. Isaacowitz, D. M., Wadlinger, H. A., Goren, D., & Wilson, H. R. (2006a). Is there an age-related positivity effect in visual attention? A comparison of two methodologies. Emotion, 6, 511-516. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.6 .3.511
41. Isaacowitz, D. M., Wadlinger, H. A., Goren, D., & Wilson, H. R. (2006b). Selective preference in visual fixation away from negative images in old age? An eye-tracking study. Psychology and Aging, 21, 40-48. doi: 10.1037/0882-7974.21.1.40
42. Johnson, D. R., & Whiting, W. L. (2013). Detecting subtle expressions: Older adults demonstrate automatic and controlled positive response bias in emotional perception. Psychology and Aging, 28, 172-178. doi:10.1037/a0029914
43. Kapucu, A., Rotello, C. M., Ready, R. E., & Seidl, K. N. (2008). Response bias in "remembering" emotional stimuli: A new perspective on age differences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34, 703-711. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.34.3.703
44. Kennedy, Q., Mather, M., & Carstensen, L. L. (2004). The role of motivation in the age-related positivity effect in autobiographical memory. Psychological Science, 15, 208-214. doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004 .01503011.x
45. Kensinger, E. A. (2008). Age differences in memory for arousing and nonarousing emotional words. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 63B, P13-P18. doi: 10.1093/geronb/63.1.P13
46. Kensinger, E. A., Brierley, B., Medford, N., Growdon, J. H., & Corkin, S. (2002). Effects of normal aging and Alzheimer's disease on emotional memory. Emotion, 2, 118-134. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.2.2.118
47. Kensinger, E. A., O'Brien, J. L., Swanberg, K., Garoff-Eaton, R. J., & Schacter, D. L. (2007). The effects of emotional content on realitymonitoring performance in young and older adults. Psychology and Aging, 22, 752-764. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.22.4.752
48. Kensinger, E. A., & Schacter, D. L. (2008). Neural processes supporting young and older adults' emotional memories. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 20, 1161-1173. doi:10.1162/jocn.2008.20080
49. Knight, B. G., Maines, M. L., & Robinson, G. S. (2002). The effects of sad mood on memory in older adults: A test of the mood congruence effect. Psychology and Aging, 17, 653-661. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.17.4.653
50. Knight, M., Seymour, T. L., Gaunt, J. T., Baker, C., Nesmith, K., & Mather, M. (2007). Aging and goal-directed emotional attention: Distraction reverses emotional biases. Emotion, 7, 705-714. doi:10.1037/ 1528-3542.7.4.705
51. Ko, S.-G., Lee, T.-H., Yoon, H.-Y., Kwon, J.-H., & Mather, M. (2011). How does context affect assessments of facial emotion? The role of culture and age. Psychology and Aging, 26, 48-59. doi:10.1037/ a0020222
52. Konstantopoulos, S., & Hedges, L. V. (2009). Fixed effects models in meta-analysis. In H. Cooper, L. V. Hedges, & J. C. Valentine (Eds.), The handbook of research synthesis and meta-analysis (2nd ed., pp. 279-294). New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
53. Kwon, Y., Scheibe, S., Samanez-Larkin, G. R., Tsai, J. L., & Carstensen, L. L. (2009). Replicating the positivity effect in picture memory in Koreans: Evidence for cross-cultural generalizability. Psychology and Aging, 24, 748-754. doi:10.1037/a0016054
54. Labouvie-Vief, G., Grühn, D., & Studer, J. (2010). Dynamic integration of emotion and cognition: Equilibrium regulation in development and aging. In R. M. Lerner, M. E. Lamb, & A. M. Freund (Eds.), The handbook of life-span development (Vol. 2, pp. 79-115). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. doi:10.1002/9780470880166.hlsd002004
55. Langeslag, S. J. E., & Van Strien, J. W. (2008). Age differences in the emotional modulation of ERP old/new effects. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 70, 105-114. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2008.07.022
56. Langeslag, S. J. E., & Van Strien, J. W. (2009). Aging and emotional memory: The co-occurrence of neurophysiological and behavioral positivity effects. Emotion, 9, 369-377. doi:10.1037/a0015356
57. Leclerc, C. M., & Kensinger, E. A. (2008). Effects of age on detection of emotional information. Psychology and Aging, 23, 209-215.
58. Leclerc, C. M., & Kensinger, E. A. (2010). Age-related valence-based reversal in recruitment of medial prefrontal cortex on a visual search task. Social Neuroscience, 5, 560-576. doi:10.1080/17470910903512296
59. Leclerc, C. M., & Kensinger, E. A. (2011). Neural processing of emotional pictures and words: A comparison of young and older adults. Developmental Neuropsychology, 36, 519-538. doi:10.1080/87565641 .2010.549864
60. Leigland, L. A., Schulz, L. E., & Janowsky, J. S. (2004). Age related changes in emotional memory. Neurobiology of Aging, 25, 1117-1124. doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2003.10.015
61. Li, T., Fung, H. H., & Isaacowitz, D. M. (2011). The role of dispositional reappraisal in the age-related positivity effect. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 66B, 56-60. doi:10.1093/geronb/gbq074
62. Löckenhoff, C. E., & Carstensen, L. L. (2007). Aging, emotion, and health-related decision strategies: Motivational manipulations can reduce age differences. Psychology and Aging, 22, 134-146. doi:10.1037/ 0882-7974.22.1.134
63. Löckenhoff, C. E., & Carstensen, L. L. (2008). Decision strategies in health care choices for self and others: Older but not younger adults make adjustments for the age of the decision target. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 63B, P106-P109. doi:10.1093/geronb/63.2.P106
64. Majerus, S., & D'Argembeau, A. (2011). Verbal short-term memory reflects the organization of long-term memory: Further evidence from short-term memory for emotional words. Journal of Memory and Language, 64, 181-197. doi:10.1016/j.jml.2010.10.003
65. Mather, M., Canli, T., English, T., Whitfield, S., Wais, P., Ochsner, K., . . . Carstensen, L. L. (2004). Amygdala responses to emotionally valenced stimuli in older and younger adults. Psychological Science, 15, 259-263. doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00662.x
66. Mather, M., & Carstensen, L. L. (2003). Aging and attentional biases for emotional faces. Psychological Science, 14, 409-415. doi:10.1111/ 1467-9280.01455
67. Mather, M., & Carstensen, L. L. (2005). Aging and motivated cognition: The positivity effect in attention and memory. Trends in Cognitive Science, 9, 496-502. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2005.08.005
68. Mather, M., & Knight, M. (2005). Goal-directed memory: The role of cognitive control in older adults' emotional memory. Psychology and Aging, 20, 554-570. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.20.4.554
69. Mather, M., & Knight, M. (2006). Angry faces get noticed quickly: Threat detection is not impaired among older adults. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 61B, P54-P57. doi:10.1093/geronb/61.1.P54
70. Mather, M., Knight, M., & McCaffrey, M. (2005). The allure of the alignable: Younger and older adults' false memories of choice features. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 134, 38-51. doi:10.1037/ 0096-3445.134.1.38
71. McKay-Nesbitt, J., Manchanda, R. V., Smith, M. C., & Huhmann, B. A. (2011). Effects of age, need for cognition, and affective intensity on advertising effectiveness. Journal of Business Research, 64, 12-17. doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2009.09.013
72. Mickley, K. R., & Kensinger, E. A. (2009). Phenomenological characteristics of emotional memories in younger and older adults. Memory, 17, 528-543. doi:10.1080/09658210902939363
73. Mickley Steinmetz, K. R., Muscatell, K. A., & Kensinger, E. A. (2010). The effect of valence on young and older adults' attention in a rapid serial visual presentation task. Psychology and Aging, 25, 239-245. doi:10.1037/a0018297
74. Mienaltowski, A., Corballis, P. M., Blanchard-Fields, F., Parks, N. A., & Hilimire, M. R. (2011). Anger management: Age differences in emotional modulation of visual processing. Psychology and Aging, 26, 224-231. doi:10.1037/a0021032
75. Mikels, J. A., Larkin, G. R., Reuter-Lorenz, P. A., & Carstensen, L. L. (2005). Divergent trajectories in the aging mind: Changes in working memory for affective versus visual information with age. Psychology and Aging, 20, 542-553. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.20.4.542
76. Mikels, J. A., Reed, A. E., Hardy, L. N., & Löckenhoff, C. E. (in press). Positive emotions across the adult life span. In M. Tugade, L. Shiota, & L. Kirby (Eds.), Handbook of positive emotions. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
77. Morris, S. B., & DeShon, R. P. (2002). Combining effect size estimates in meta-analysis with repeated measures and independent-groups designs. Psychological Methods, 7, 105-125. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.7.1.105
78. Murphy, N. A., & Isaacowitz, D. M. (2008). Preferences for emotional information in older and younger adults: A meta-analysis of memory and attention tasks. Psychology and Aging, 23, 263-286. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.23.2.263
79. Nashiro, K., & Mather, M. (2011a). Effects of emotional arousal on memory binding in normal aging and Alzheimer's disease. The American Journal of Psychology, 124, 301-312. doi:10.5406/amerjpsyc.124 .3.0301
80. Nashiro, K., & Mather, M. (2011b). How arousal affects younger and older Adults' memory binding. Experimental Aging Research, 37, 108P54-128. doi:10.1080/0361073X.2011.536746
81. Nashiro, K., Mather, M., Gorlick, M. A., & Nga, L. (2011). Negative emotional outcomes impair older adults' reversal learning. Cognition and Emotion, 25, 1014-1028. doi:10.1080/02699931.2010.542999
82. Nikitin, J., & Freund, A. M. (2011). Age and motivation predict gaze behavior for facial expressions. Psychology and Aging, 26, 695-700. doi:10.1037/a0023281
83. Noh, S. R., & Isaacowitz, D. M. (2011). Age differences in the emotional modulation of attention: Effects of own-age versus other-age emotional face cues on the alerting and orienting networks. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 23, 709-722.
84. Orgeta, V. (2011). Avoiding threat in late adulthood: Testing two life span theories of emotion. Experimental Aging Research, 37, 449-472. doi: 10.1080/0361073X.2011.590759
85. Piguet, O., Connally, E., Krendl, A. C., Huot, J. R., & Corkin, S. (2008). False memory in aging: Effects of emotional valence on word recognition accuracy. Psychology and Aging, 23, 307-314. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.23.2.307
86. Pruis, T. A., Neiss, M. B., Leigland, L. A., & Janowsky, J. S. (2009). Estrogen modifies arousal but not memory for emotional events in older women. Neurobiology of Aging, 30, 1296-1304. doi:10.1016/j .neurobiolaging.2007.11.009
87. Rahhal, T. A., May, C. P., & Hasher, L. (2002). Truth and character: Sources that older adults can remember. Psychological Science, 13, 101-105. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00419
88. Ready, R. E., Weinberger, M. I., & Jones, K. M. (2007). How happy have you felt lately? Two diary studies of emotion recall in older and younger adults. Cognition and Emotion, 21, 728-757. doi:10.1080/ 02699930600948269
89. Reed, A. E., & Carstensen, L. L. (2012). The theory behind the age-related positivity effect. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 1-9.
90. Rendell, P. G., Phillips, L. H., Henry, J. D., Brumby-Rendell, T., de la Piedad Garcia, X., Altgassen, M., & Kliegel, M. (2011). Prospective memory, emotional valence and ageing. Cognition and Emotion, 25, 916-925. doi:10.1080/02699931.2010.508610
91. Ritchey, M., Bessette-Symons, B., Hayes, S. M., & Cabeza, R. (2011). Emotion processing in the aging brain is modulated by semantic elaboration. Neuropsychologia, 49, 640-650. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia. 2010.09.009
92. Rösler, A., Ulrich, C., Billino, J., Sterzer, P., Weidauer, S., Bernhardt, T., . . . Kleinschmidt, A. (2005). Effects of arousing emotional scenes on the distribution of visuospatial attention: Changes with aging and early subcortical vascular dementia. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 229-230, 109-116. doi:10.1016/j.jns.2004.11.007
93. Rozin, P., & Royzman, E. B. (2001). Negativity bias, negativity dominance, and contagion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5, 296-320. doi:10.1207/S15327957PSPR0504_2
94. Samanez-Larkin, G. R., & Carstensen, L. L. (2011). Socioemotional functioning and the aging brain. In J. Decety & J. T. Cacioppo (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of social neuroscience (pp. 507-521). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195342161.013 .0034
95. Samanez-Larkin, G. R., Robertson, E. R., Mikels, J. A., Carstensen, L. L., & Gotlib, I. H. (2009). Selective attention to emotion in the aging brain. Psychology and Aging, 24, 519-529. doi:10.1037/a0016952
96. Savaskan, E., Müller, S. E., Böhringer, A., Philippsen, C., Müller-Spahn, F., & Schächinger, H. (2007). Age determines memory for face identity and expression. Psychogeriatrics, 7, 49-57. doi:10.1111/j.1479-8301 .2007.00179.x
97. Scheibe, S., & Carstensen, L. L. (2010). Emotional aging: Recent findings and Future trends. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 65B, 135-144. doi:10.1093/geronb/ gbp132
98. Shamaskin, A. M., Mikels, J. A., & Reed, A. E. (2010). Getting the message across: Age differences in the positive and negative framing of health care messages. Psychology and Aging, 25, 746-751. doi:10.1037/ a0018431
99. Spaniol, J., Voss, A., & Grady, C. L. (2008). Aging and emotional memory: Cognitive mechanisms underlying the positivity effect. Psychology and Aging, 23, 859-872. doi:10.1037/a0014218
100. St. Jacques, P., Dolcos, F., & Cabeza, R. (2010). Effects of aging on functional connectivity of the amygdala during negative evaluation: A network analysis of fMRI data. Neurobiology of Aging, 31, 315-327. doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2008.03.012
101. Thapar, A., & Rouder, J. N. (2009). Aging and recognition memory for emotional words: A bias account. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 16, 699-704. doi:10.3758/PBR.16.4.699
102. Thomas, R. C., & Hasher, L. (2006). The influence of emotional valence on age differences in early processing and memory. Psychology and Aging, 21, 821-825. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.21.4.821
103. Thompson, L. A., Aidinejad, M. R., & Ponte, J. (2001). Aging and the effects of facial and prosodic cues on emotional intensity ratings and memory reconstructions. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 25, 101-125. doi:10.1023/A:1010749711863
104. Tomaszczyk, J. C., Fernandes, M. A., & Macleod, C. M. (2008). Personal relevance modulates the positivity bias in recall of emotional pictures in older adults. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 15, 191-196. doi:10.3758/ PBR.15.1.191
105. Van Gerven, P. W. M., & Murphy, D. R. (2010). Aging and distraction by irrelevant speech: Does emotional valence matter?. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B:Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 65B, 667-670. doi:10.1093/geronb/gbq048
106. Waring, J. D., & Kensinger, E. A. (2009). Effects of emotional valence and arousal upon memory trade-offs with aging. Psychology and Aging, 24, 412-422. doi:10.1037/a0015526
107. Werheid, K., Gruno, M., Kathmann, N., Fischer, H., Almkvist, O., & Winblad, B. (2010). Biased recognition of positive faces in aging and amnestic mild cognitive impairment. Psychology and Aging, 25, 1-15. doi:10.1037/a0018358
108. Williams, P., & Drolet, A. (2005). Age-related differences in responses to emotional advertisements. Journal of Consumer Research, 32, 343-354. doi:10.1086/497545
109. Wurm, L. H. (2011). Decreasing complexity of affective space in older adults lower on cognitive control: Affective effects in a nonaffective task and with nonaffective stimuli. Psychology and Aging, 26, 716-730. doi:10.1037/a0022513
110. Yang, L., & Hasher, L. (2011). Age differences in the automatic accessibility of emotional words from semantic memory. Cognition and Emotion, 25, 3-9. doi:10.1080/02699930903523348
111. Yang, L., & Ornstein, T. J. (2011). The effect of emotion-focused orientation at retrieval on emotional memory in young and older adults. Memory, 19, 305-313. doi:10.1080/09658211.2011.561803