Basal functioning of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and psychological distress in recreational ecstasy polydrug users

Psychopharmacology

Volumn 231, Issue 7, 2014, Pages 1365-1375

  Wetherell, Mark A ^a   Montgomery, Catharine ^b  

^a NORTHUMBRIA UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^b LIVERPOOL JOHN MOORES UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Cortisol; Cortisol awakening response; Ecstasy; HPA axis; Keywords: MDMA

Indexed keywords

3,4 METHYLENEDIOXYMETHAMPHETAMINE; CANNABIS; COCAINE; HYDROCORTISONE; RECREATIONAL DRUG; STREET DRUG;

ADULT; ANXIETY DISORDER; ARTICLE; CANNABIS ADDICTION; CIRCADIAN RHYTHM; COCAINE DEPENDENCE; CONTROLLED STUDY; DEPRESSION; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISTRESS SYNDROME; FEMALE; HORMONE DETERMINATION; HUMAN; HYDROCORTISONE RELEASE; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; MULTIPLE DRUG ABUSE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOLOGIC ASSESSMENT; SALIVA LEVEL; UPREGULATION; ADDICTION; ANXIETY; CASE CONTROL STUDY; CHEMICALLY INDUCED; DRUG USE; HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS SYSTEM; METABOLISM; PSYCHOLOGY; SALIVA; YOUNG ADULT;

ANXIETY; CASE-CONTROL STUDIES; CIRCADIAN RHYTHM; DEPRESSION; DRUG USERS; FEMALE; HUMANS; HYDROCORTISONE; HYPOTHALAMO-HYPOPHYSEAL SYSTEM; MALE; N-METHYL-3,4-METHYLENEDIOXYAMPHETAMINE; PITUITARY-ADRENAL SYSTEM; SALIVA; STREET DRUGS; SUBSTANCE-RELATED DISORDERS; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 84896490377     PISSN: 00333158     EISSN: 14322072     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00213-013-3325-0     Document Type: Article

References (79)

1. Abercrombie HC, Giese-Davis J, Sephton S, Epel ES, Turner-Cobb JM, Spiegel D (2004) Flattened cortisol rhythms in metastatic breast cancer patients. Psychoneuroendocrinology 29:1082-1092
2. Arsenault-Lapierre G, Chertkow H, Lupien S (2010) Seasonal effects on cortisol secretion in normal aging, mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 31:1051-1054
3. Bower JE, Ganz PA, Dickerson SS, Petersen L, Aziz N, Fahey JL (2005) Diurnal cortisol rhythm and fatigue in breast cancer survivors. Psychoneuroendocrinology 30:92-100
4. Boyle NT, Connor TJ (2010) Methylenedioxymethamphetamine ('Ecstasy')-induced immunosuppression: a cause for concern? Br J Pharmacol 161:17-32
5. Buchanan TW, Kern S, Allen JS, Tranel D, Kirschbaum C (2004) Circadian regulation of cortisol after hippocampal damage in humans. Biol Psychiatry 56:651-656
6. Buske-Kirschbaum A, Geiben A, Hollig H, Morschhauser E, Hellhammer D (2002) Altered responsiveness of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis and the sympathetic adrenomedullary system to stress in patients with atopic dermatitis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87:4245-4251
7. Carson DS, Bosanquet DP, Carter CS, Pournajafi-Nazarloo H, Blaszczynski A, McGregor IS (2012) Preliminary evidence for lowered basal cortisol in a naturalistic sample of methamphetamine polydrug users. Exp and Clin Psychopharmacol 20(6):497-503
8. Cole JC, Sumnall HR, Grob CS (2002) Sorted: Ecstasy facts and fiction. The Psychologist 15(9):464-467
9. Connor TJ, Harkin A, Kelly JP (2005) Methylenedioxymethamphetamine suppresses production of the proinflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor-alpha independent of a beta-adrenoceptor-mediated increase in interleukin-10. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 312:134-143
10. Department of Health (2010) United Kingdom drug situation: annual report to the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA)
11. Dumont GJ, Verkes RJ (2006) A review of acute effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine in healthy volunteers. J Psychopharmacol 20:176-187
12. Edwards S, Hucklebridge F, Clow A, Evans P (2003) Components of the diurnal cortisol cycle in relation to upper respiratory symptoms and perceived stress. Psychosom Med 65:320-327
13. Elder GJ, Wetherell MA, Barclay NL, Ellis JG (2013) The cortisol awakening response - Applications and implications for sleep medicine. Sleep Med Rev. doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2013.05.001
14. Elenkov IJ (2004) Glucocorticoids and the Th1/Th2 balance. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1024:138-146
15. Fisk JE, Montgomery C (2009) Sleep impairment in ecstasy/polydrug and cannabis-only users. Am J Addict 18(5):430-437
16. Fisk JE, Montgomery C, Murphy P (2009) The association between the negative effects attributed to ecstasy use and measures of cognitive and mood among users. Hum Psychopharmacol Clin Exp 17(5):326-336
17. Fisk JE, Murphy PN, Montgomery C, Hadjefthyvoulou F (2010) Modelling the adverse effects associated with ecstasy use. Addiction 106:798-805
18. Fox HC, McLean A, Turner JJD, Parrott AC, Rogers R, Sahakian BJ (2002) Neuropsychological evidence of a relatively selective profile of temporal dysfunction in drug-free MDMA ("ecstasy") polydrug users. Psychopharmacology 162:203-214
19. Fries E, Dettenborn L, Kirschbaum C (2009) The cortisol awakening response (CAR): facts and future directions. Int J Psychophys 72:67-73
20. Gerra G, Bassignana S, Zaimovic A, Moi G, Bussandri M, Caccavari R, Brambilla F, Molina E (2003) Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis responses to stress in subjects with 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine ('ecstasy')use history: correlation with dopamine receptor sensitivity. Psychiat Res 120:115-124
21. Gerra G, Zaimovic A, Chittolini B, Giucastro G, Folli F, Maestri D, Tessoni A, Avanzini P, Caccavari R, Bernasconi S, Brambilla F (1998) Neurotransmitter-hormonal responses to psychological stress in peripubertal subjects; relationship to aggressive behavior. Life Sci 62:617-625
22. Gold PW, Goodwin F, Chrousos GP (1998) Clinical and biochemical manifestations of depression: relationship to the neurobiology of stress. N Engl J Med 319:413-420
23. Harris DS, Baggott M, Mendelson JH, Mendelson JE, Jones RT (2002) Subjective and hormonal effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in humans. Psychopharmacology 162:396-405
24. Hellhammer DH, Fries E, Scweisthal OW, Schlotz W, Stone AA, Hagemann D (2007) Several daily measurements are necessary to reliably assess the cortisol rise after awakening: state- and trait components. Psychoneuroendocrinlogy 32:80-86
25. Huber TJ, Issa K, Schik G, Wolf OT (2006) The cortisol awakening response is blunted in psychotherapy inpatients suffering from depression. Psychoneuroendocrinology 31:900-904
26. Johnson EO, Vlachoyiannopoulos PG, Skopouli FN, Tzioufas AG, Moutsopoulos HM (1998) Hypofunction of the stress axis in Sjogren's syndrome. J Rheumatol 25:1508-1514
27. Kiecolt-Glaser JK, McGuire L, Robles T, Glaser R (2002) Psychoneuroimmunology and psychosomatic medicine: back to the future. Psychosom Med 64:15-28
28. Kraemer HC, Giese Davis J, Yutsis MBA, O'Hara R, Neri EBS, Gallagher Thompson D, Taylor CB, Spiegel D (2006) Design decisions in order to optimise reliability of daytime diurnal slopes in an older population. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 14:325-333
29. Kudielka BM, Broderick JE, Kirschbaum C (2003) Compliance with saliva sampling protocols: electronic monitoring reveals invalid cortisol profiles in noncompliant subjects. Psychosom Med 65:313-319
30. Kudielka BM, Kirschbaum C (2003) Awakening cortisol responses are influenced by health status and awakening time but not by menstrual cycle phase. Psychoneuroendocrinology 28:35-47
31. Lovell B, Moss M, Wetherell MA (2011) The psychosocial, endocrine and immune consequences of caring for a child with autism or ADHD. Psychoneuroendocrinology 37:534-542
32. Lovell B, Moss MC, Wetherell MA (2012) With a little help from my friends: Psychological, endocrine and health corollaries of social support in parental caregivers of children with autism and ADHD. Res Dev Disabilit 33(2):682-687
33. Lupien S, de Leon M, de Santi S, Convit A, Tarshish C, Nair N, Thakur M, McEwen B, Hauger R, Meaney M (1998) Cortisol levels during human aging predict hippocampal atrophy and memory deficits. Nat Neurosci 1:69-73
34. Mas M, Farre M, de la Torre R, Roset PN, Ortuno J, Segura J, Cami J (1999) Cardiovascular and neuroendocrine effects and pharmacokinetics of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetaminein humans. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 290:136-145
35. Masi AT, Chrousos GP (1996) Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-glucocorticoid axis function in rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 23:577-581
36. McCann UD, Sgambati FP, Schwartz AR, Ricaurte GA (2009) Sleep apnea in young abstinent recreational MDMA ("ecstasy") consumers. Neurology 8(73):2011-7
37. McCardle K, Luebbers JD, Carter JD, Croft RJ, Stough C (2004) Chronic MDMA (ecstasy) use, cognition and mood. Psychopharmacology 173:434-439
38. McEwen BS (1998) Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators. N Engl J Med 338(3):171-9
39. Miller GE, Chen E, Zhou ES (2007) If it goes up, must it come down? Chronic stress and the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenocortical axis in humans. Psychol Bull 133(1):25-45
40. Montgomery C, Fisk JE, Newcombe R, Murphy PN (2005) The differential effects of ecstasy/polydrug use on executive components: shifting, inhibition, updating and access to semantic memory. Psychopharmacology 182:262-276
41. Montgomery C, Fisk JE, Wareing M, Murphy P (2007) Self reported sleep quality and cognitive performance in ecstasy users. Hum Psychopharmacol 22(8):537-548
42. Montgomery C, Hatton NP, Fisk JE, Ogden RS, Jansari A (2010) Assessing the functional significance of ecstasy-related memory deficits using a virtual paradigm. Hum Psychopharmacol 25(4):318-325
43. Murphy PN, Wareing M, Fisk JE, Montgomery C (2009) Executive working memory deficits in abstinent ecstasy/MDMA users: a critical review. Neuropsychobiology 60:159-175
44. NIH National Institute on Drug Abuse (2012) Monitoring the future
45. Okun ML, Krafty RT, Buysse DJ, Monk TJ, Reynolds CF, Begley A, Hall M (2010) What constitutes too long of a delay? Determining the cortisol awakening response (CAR) using self report and PSG-assessed wake time. Psychoneuroendocrinology 35:460-468
46. Oskis A, Loveday C, Hucklebridge F, Thorn L, Clow A (2009) Diurnal patterns of salivary cortisol across the adolescent period in healthy females. Psychoneuroendocrinology 34:307-316
47. Pacifici R, Zuccaro P, Farre M, Pichini S, Di Carlo S, Roset PN, Ortuno J, Pujadas M, Bacosi A, Menoyo E, Segura J, de la Torre R (2001) Effects of repeated doses of MDMA ('ecstasy') on cell-mediated immune response in humans. Life Sci 69:2931-2941
48. Pacifici R, Zuccaro P, Farré M, Poudevida S, Abanades S, Pichini S, Langohr K, Segura J, de la Torre R (2007) Combined immunomodulating properties of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and cannabis in humans. Addiction 102(6):931-6
49. Parrot AC (2004) Is ecstasy MDMA? A review of the proportion of ecstasy tablets containing MDMA, their dosage levels, and the changing perceptions of purity. Psychopharmacology 173(3-4):234-41
50. Parrott AC (2006) MDMA in humans: factors which affect neuropsychobiological profiles of recreational ecstasy users, the integrative role of bioenergetic stress. J Psychopharmacol 20(2):147-163
51. Parrott AC (2009) Cortisol and 3,4 Methylenedioxymethamphetamine: Neurohormonal aspects of bioenergetic stress in ecstasy users. Neuropsychobiology 60:148-158
52. Parrott AC, Buchanan T, Scholey AB, Heffernan TM, Ling J, Rodgers J (2002) Ecstasy-attributed problems reported by novice, moderate and heavy recreational users. Hum Psychopharmacol 17:309-312
53. Parrott AC, Gibbs A, Scholey AB, King R, Owens K, Swann P, Ogden E, Stough C (2011) MDMA and methamphetamine: some paradoxical negative and positive mood changes in an acute dose laboratory study. Psychopharmacology 215:527-536
54. Parrott AC, Lock J, Conner A, Kissling C, Thome J (2008) Dance clubbing on MDMA and during abstinence from ecstasy/MDMA: prospective neuroendocrine and psychobiological changes. Neuropsychobiology 57:165-180
55. Parrott AC, Milani RM, Gouzoulis-Mayfrank E, Daumann J (2007) Cannabis and ecstasy/MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine): an analysis of their neuropsychobiological interactions in recreational users. J Neural Trans 114:959-968
56. Pruessner JC, Kirschbaum C, Meinlschmid G, Hellhammer DH (2003) Two formulas for computation of the area under the curve represent measures of total hormone concentration versus time-dependent change. Psychoneuroendocrinology 28:916-931
57. Pruessner M, Vracotas N, Joober R, Pruessner JC, Malla AK (2013) Blunted cortisol awakening response in men with first episode psychosis: relationship to parental bonding. Psychoneuroendocrinology 38:229-240
58. Reay JL, Hamilton C, Kennedy DO, Scholey AB (2006) MDMA polydrug users show process-specific central executive impairments coupled with impaired social and emotional judgement processes. J Psychopharmacol 20:385-388
59. Roberts C, Fairclough S, Fisk J, Tames F, Montgomery C (2013a) Electrophysiological indices of response inhibition in human polydrug users. J Psychopharmacol 27(9):779-789
60. Roberts CA, Fairclough SF, Fisk JE, Tames F, Montgomery CA (2013b) ERP evidence suggests executive dysfunction in ecstasy polydrug users. Psychopharmacology 3(228):375-388
61. Rodgers J, Buchanan T, Pearson C, Parrott AC, Heffernan T, Scholey AB (2006) Differential experiences of the psychobiological sequelae of ecstasy use: quantitative and qualitative data from an internet study. J Psychopharmacol 20(3):437-446
62. Rosmond R (2005) Role of stress in the pathogenesis of the metabolic syndrome. Psychoneuroendocrinology 30:1-10
63. Saxbe DE (2008) A field (researcher's) guide to cortisol: tracking HPA axis functioning in everyday life. Health Psych Rev 2(2):163-190
64. Scholey AB, Owen L, Gates J, Rodgers J, Buchanan T, Ling J, Heffernan T, Swan P, Stough C, Parrott AC (2011) Hair MDMA samples are consistent with reported ecstasy use: findings from a study investigating effects of ecstasy on mood and memory. Neuropsychobiology 63:15-21
65. Scholtz W, Hellhammer J, Schulz P, Stone AA (2004) Perceived workoverload and chronic worrying predict weekend-weekday differences in the cortisol awakening response. Psychosom Med 6:207-214
66. Schulz P, Kirschbaum C, Pruessner JC, Hellhamer D (1998) Increased free cortisol secretion after awakening in chronically stressed individuals due to workload. Stress Med 14:91-97
67. Sephton SE, Sapolsky RM, Kraemer HC, Spiegel D (2000) Diurnal cortisol rhythm as a predictor of breast cancer survival. J Natl Cancer Ins 92(12):994-1000
68. Snaith RP (2003) The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale: commentary. Health Qual Life Outcomes 1:29
69. Solowij N, Battisti R (2008) The chronic effects of cannabis on memory in humans: a review. Curr Drug Abuse Rev 1:81-98
70. Solowij N, Hall W, Lee N (1992) Recreational MDMA use in Sydney: a profile of ecstasy users and their experiences with the drug. Br J Addict 87:1161-1172
71. Stalder T, Hucklebridge F, Evans P, Clow A (2009) Use of a single case study design to examine state variation in the cortisol awakening response: Relationship with time of awakening. Psychoneuroendocrinology 34:607-614
72. Verheul R (2001) Co-morbidity of personality disorders in individuals with substance use disorders. Eur Psychiatry 16:274-282
73. Verheyden SL, Henry JA, Curran V (2003) Acute, sub-acute and long-term subjective consequences of 'ecstasy' (MDMA) consumption in 430 regular users. Hum Psychopharmacol 18:507-517
74. Wetherell MA, Atherton K, Grainger J, Brosman R, Scholey AB (2012) The effects of multi-tasking on psychological stress reactivity in recreational drug users. Hum Psychopharmacol Clin Exp 27(2):167-176
75. Wolff K, Aitchison KJ (2013) Reply to 'MDMA can increase cortical levels by 800% in dance clubbers' Parrott, et al. J Psychopharmacol 27:115
76. Wolff K, Tsapakis EM, Pariante CM, Kerwin RW, Forsling ML, Aitchison KJ (2012) Pharmacogenetic studies of changes in cortisol on ecstasy (MDMA) consumption. J Psychopharmacol 26(3):419-428
77. Wolf OT, Fujiwara E, Luwinski G, Kirschbaum C, Markowitsch HJ (2005) No morning cortisol response in patients with severe global amnesia. Psychoneuroendocrinology 30:101-105
78. Zakzanis KK, Campbell Z, Jovanovski D (2007) The neuropsychology of ecstasy (MDMA) use: a quantitative review. Hum Psychopharmacol 22:427-435
79. Zigmond AS, Snaith RP (1983) The hospital anxiety and depression scale. Acta Psychiatr Scand 67(6):361-70