High cesium concentrations in groundwater in the upper 1.2km of fractured crystalline rock - Influence of groundwater origin and secondary minerals

Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta

Volumn 132, Issue , 2014, Pages 187-213

  Mathurin, Frédéric A ^a   Drake, Henrik ^a   Tullborg, Eva Lena ^b   Berger, Tobias ^a   Peltola, Pasi ^a   Kalinowski, Birgitta E ^c   Åström, Mats E ^a  

^a LINNAEUS UNIVERSITY   (Sweden)

^b UNIVERSITY OF GOTHENBURG   (Sweden)

^c SWEDISH NUCLEAR FUEL AND WASTE MANAGEMENT CO   (Sweden)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CESIUM; CONCENTRATION (COMPOSITION); CRYSTALLINE ROCK; GRANITOID; GROUNDWATER FLOW; REGOLITH; SALINITY; TRACE ELEMENT; WATER CHEMISTRY; WATER QUALITY;

BALTIC SHIELD; EAST EUROPEAN CRATON; KALMAR [SWEDEN]; LAXEMAR; SWEDEN;

EID: 84895973626     PISSN: 00167037     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.gca.2014.02.001     Document Type: Article

References (147)

1. Alfassi Z.B. Chemical Analysis by Nuclear Methods 1994, John Wiley & Sons.
2. Allard B., Karlsson M., Tullborg E.-L. and Larson S. Å. (1983) Ion Exchange Capacities and Surface Areas of Some Major Components and Fracture Filling Materials of Igneous Rocks, TR-83-64. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
3. Andersson P., Byegård J., Dershowitz B., Doe T., Hermanson J., Meier P., Tullborg E.-L. and Winberg A., 2002. Final Report of the TRUE Block Scale Project. 1. Characterisation and Model Development, TR-02-13. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
4. Andersson P., Byegård J., Tullborg E.-L., Doe T., Hermanson J., Winberg A. In situ tracer tests to determine retention properties of a block scale fracture network in granitic rock at the Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory, Sweden. J. Contam. Hydrol. 2004, 70:271-297.
5. Andersson P., Byegård J., Billaux D., Cvetkovic V., Dershowitz W., Doe T., Hermanson J., Poteri A., Tullborg E.-L. and Winberg A. (2007) TRUE Block Scale Continuation Project. Final Report, TR-06-42. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
6. Andersson J., Skagius K., Winberg A., Lindborg T., Ström A. Site-descriptive modelling for a final repository for spent nuclear fuel in Sweden. Environ. Earth Sci. 2013, 1-16.
7. Appelo C.A.J. Cation and proton-exchange, pH variations, and carbonate reactions in a freshening aquifer. Water Resour. Res. 1994, 30:2793-2805.
8. Appelo C.A.J., Postma D. Geochemistry, Groundwater and Pollution 2005, Taylor & Francis, Amsterdam, Netherland. second ed.
9. Ask H., Morosini M. and Hedqvist I. (2008) Drilling of Cored Borehole KLX15A - Oskarshamn Site Investigation, P-08-58. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Co), Stockholm, Sweden.
10. Augustsson A., Bergback B., Astrom M. Trace metals in recharge and discharge ground waters at two sites at the Baltic coast of Sweden. Appl. Geochem. 2009, 24:1640-1652.
11. Baeyens B., Bradbury M.H. Cation exchange capacity measurements on illite using the sodium and cesium isotope dilution technique: effects of the index cation, electrolyte concentration and competition: modeling. Clay Clay Mineral. 2004, 52:421-431.
12. Banks D., Reimann C., Royset O., Skarphagen H., Saether O.M. Natural concentrations of major and trace-elements in some norwegian bedrock groundwaters. Appl. Geochem. 1995, 10:1-16.
13. Banwart S. A., Laaksoharju M., Gustafsson E., Pitkänene P., Snellman M., Landström O., Aggerud I., Mathiasson L. and Sundblad B. (1995) The hydrochemistry of conservative natural tracers. In: The Redox Experiment in Block Scale (ed. S. Banwart). Final Reporting of Results from the Three Year Project. PR 25-95-06. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
14. Banwart S.A., Gustafsson E., Laaksoharju M. Hydrological and reactive processes during rapid recharge to fracture zones - the Äspö large scale redox experiment. Appl. Geochem. 1999, 14:873-892.
15. Bein A., Arad A. Formation of saline groundwater in the Baltic region through freezing of seawter during glacial periods. J. Hydrol. 1992, 140:75-87.
16. Bjorck S. A review of the history of the Baltic Sea, 13.0-8.0 KA BP. Quat. Int. 1995, 27:19-40.
17. Bradbury M.H., Baeyens B. A generalised sorption model for the concentration dependent uptake of caesium by argillaceous rocks. J. Contam. Hydrol. 2000, 42:141-163.
18. Brindley G. W. and Brown G. (1984) Crystal structures of clay minerals and their X-ray identification. Mineralogy Society Monography, vol. 5. U.K.
19. Brouwer E., Baeyens B., Maes A., Cremers A. Cesium and rubidium ion equilibria in illite clay. J. Phys. Chem. 1983, 87:1213-1219.
20. Byegård J., Johansson H., Skålberg M. and Tullborg E.-L. (1998) The interaction of sorbing and non-sorbing tracers with different Äspö rock types. Sorption and Diffusion Experiments in the Laboratory Scale, TR-98-18. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
21. Cederbom C. Phanerozoic, pre-Cretaceous thermotectonic events in southern Sweden revealed by fission track thermochronology. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2001, 190:277-279.
22. Celle-Jeanton H., Huneau F., Travi Y., Edmunds W.M. Twenty years of groundwater evolution in the Triassic sandstone aquifer of Lorraine: impacts on baseline water quality. Appl. Geochem. 2009, 24:1198-1213.
23. Choppin G.R., Rydberg J., Liljenzin J.-O. Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry 2001, Butterworth-Heinemann. fourth ed.
24. Comans R.N.J., Hockley D.E. Kinetics of cesium sorption on illite. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 1992, 56:1157-1164.
25. Comans R.N.J., Haller M., Depreter P. Sorption of cesium on illite - non equilibrium behavior and reversibility. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 1991, 55:433-440.
26. Cornell R.M. Adsorption of cesium on minerals - a review. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. 1993, 171:483-500.
27. Cvetkovic V. Significance of fracture rim zone heterogeneity for tracer transport in crystalline rock. Water Resour. Res. 2010, 46.
28. Cvetkovic V., Frampton A. Transport and retention from single to multiple fractures in crystalline rock at Aspo (Sweden): 2. Fracture network simulations and generic retention model. Water Resour. Res. 2010, 46.
29. Cvetkovic V., Cheng H., Byegard J., Winberg A., Tullborg E.L., Widestrand H. Transport and retention from single to multiple fractures in crystalline rock at Aspo (Sweden): 1. Evaluation of tracer test results and sensitivity analysis. Water Resour. Res. 2010, 46.
30. de Koning A., Comans R.N.J. Reversibility of radiocaesium sorption on illite. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2004, 68:2815-2823.
31. de Koning A., Konoplev A.V., Comans R.N.J. Measuring the specific caesium sorption capacity of soils, sediments and clay minerals. Appl. Geochem. 2007, 22:219-229.
32. de la Cruz B., Fernández A. M., Rivas P., Cózar J. and Labajo M. A. (2000) Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory. TRUE Block Scale Projekt. Tracer Test Stage. Mineralogical and Geochemical Analyses of Fracture Filling Materials (Gouge and Coutings) from Drillcore Samples, IPR-01-59. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
33. Degueldre C., Pfeiffer H.R., Alexander W., Wernli B., Bruetsch R. Colloid properties in granitic groundwater systems.1. Sampling and characterisation. Appl. Geochem. 1996, 11:677-695.
34. Degueldre C., Triay I., Kim J.I., Vilks P., Laaksoharju M., Miekeley N. Groundwater colloid properties: a global approach. Appl. Geochem. 2000, 15:1043-1051.
35. Dershowitz W., Winberg A., Hermanson J., Byegård J., Tullborg E.-L., Andersson P. and Mazurek M. (2003) Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory. Äspö Task Force on modelling of groundwater flow and transport of solutes. Task 6c. A Semi-synthetic Model of Block Scale Conductive Structures at the Äspö HRL, IPR-03-13. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
36. Drake H. and Tullborg E.-L. (2009a). Fracture Mineralogy Laxemar, Site-descriptive Modelling, SDM-Site Laxemar, R-08-99. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
37. Drake H., Tullborg E.-L. Paleohydrogeological events recorded by stable isotopes, fluid inclusions and trace elements in fracture minerals in crystalline rock, Simpevarp area, SE Sweden. Appl. Geochem. 2009, 24:715-732.
38. Drake H., Tullborg E.-L., Annersten H. Red-staining of the wall rock and its influence on the reducing capacity around water conducting fractures. Appl. Geochem. 2008, 23:1898-1920.
39. Drake H., Tullborg E.-L., MacKenzie A.B. Detecting the near-surface redox front in crystalline bedrock using fracture mineral distribution, geochemistry and U-series disequilibrium. Appl. Geochem. 2009, 24:1023-1039.
40. Drake H., Tullborg E.-L., Page L. Distinguished multiple events of fracture mineralisation related to far-field orogenic effects in Paleoproterozoic crystalline rocks, Simpevarp area, SE Sweden. Lithos 2009, 110:37-49.
41. Drake H., Tullborg E.-L., Hogmalm K.J., Astrom M.E. Trace metal distribution and isotope variations in low-temperature calcite and groundwater in granitoid fractures down to 1 km depth. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2012, 84:217-238.
42. Drever J.I. The preparation of oriented clay mineral specimens for X-ray diffraction analysis by a filter-membrane peel technique. Am. Mineral. 1973, 50:741-751.
43. Duker A., Ledin A. Properties of the particulate phase in deep saline groundwater in Laxemar, Sweden. Water Res. 1998, 32:186-192.
44. Eggleton R.A., Banfield J.F. The alteration of granitic biotite to chlorite. Am. Mineral. 1985, 70:902-910.
45. Eklund S. and Mattsson K.-J. (2008) Quantitative mapping of fracture minerals in Laxemar. Oskarshamn Site Investigation, P-08-38. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
46. Engdahl A., Rådén R., Borgiel M. and Omberg L.-G. (2008) Chemical Composition of Suspended Material, Sediment and Pore Water in Lakes and Sea Bays, Oskarshamn and Forsmark Site Investigation P-08-81. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
47. Evans D.W., Alberts J.J., Clark R.A. Reversible ion-exchange fixation of cesium-137 leading to mobilisation from reservoir sediments. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 1983, 47:1041-1049.
48. Faure G. Principles and Applications of Geochemistry 1998, Prentice Hall. second ed.
49. Frengstad B., Skrede A.K.M., Banks D., Krog J.R., Siewers U. The chemistry of Norwegian groundwaters: III. The distribution of trace elements in 476 crystalline bedrock groundwaters, as analysed by ICP-MS techniques. Sci. Total Environ. 2000, 246:21-40.
50. Fritz P. Saline groundwater and brines in crystalline rocks: the contributions of John Andrews and Jean-Charles Fontes to the solution of a hydrogeological and geochemical problem. Appl. Geochem. 1997, 12:851-856.
51. Gaillardet J., Viers J., Dupré B. 5.09 - trace elements in river waters. Treatise on Geochemistry 2003, 225-272. Pergamon, Oxford. D.H. Heinrich, K.T. Karl (Eds.).
52. Gaines G.L., Thomas H.C. Adsorption studies on clay minerals. A formulation of the thermodynamics of exchange adsorption. J. Chem. Phys. 1953, 21:714-718.
53. Gimeno M. J., Auqué L. F., Gómez J. B. and Acero P. (2009) Water-rock interaction modelling and uncertainties of mixing modelling. Site Descriptive Modelling SDM-Site Laxemar, R-08-110. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
54. Göb S., Loges A., Nolde N., Bau M., Jacob D.E., Markl G. Major and trace element compositions (including REE) of mineral, thermal, mine and surface waters in SW Germany and implications for water-rock interaction. Appl. Geochem. 2013, 33:127-152.
55. Gómez J.B., Gimeno M.J., Auqué L.F., Acero P. Characterisation and modelling of mixing processes in groundwaters of a potential geological repository for nuclear wastes in crystalline rocks of Sweden. Sci. Total Environ. 2014, 468-469:791-803.
56. Hallbeck L., Pedersen K. Characterization of microbial processes in deep aquifers of the Fennoscandian Shield. Appl. Geochem. 2008, 23:1796-1819.
57. Herut B., Starinsky A., Katz A., Bein A. The role of seawater freezing in the formation of the subsurface brines. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 1990, 54:13-21.
58. Hodgkinson D., Benabderrahmane H., Elert M., Hautojarvi A., Selroos J.-O., Tanaka Y., Uchida M. An overview of Task 6 of the Aspo Task Force: modelling groundwater and solute transport: improved understanding of radionuclide transport in fractured rock. Hydrogeol. J. 2009, 17:1035-1049.
59. James R.H., Palmer M.R. Marine geochemical cycles of the alkali elements and boron: The role of sediments. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2000, 64:3111-3122.
60. Jasmund K., Lagaly G. Tonminerale und Tone: Struktur, Eigenschaften, Anwendungen und Einsatz in Industrie und Umwelt 1993, Steinkopff Verlag Darmstadt.
61. Johansson T. and Adestam L. (2004) Drilling and sampling in soil. Installation of groundwater monitoring wells in the Laxemar area. Oskarshamn Site Investigation, P-04-317. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
62. Johansson H., Siitari-Kauppi M., Skalberg M., Tullborg E.L. Diffusion pathways in crystalline rock-examples fron Aspo-diorite and fine-grained granite. J. Contam. Hydrol. 1998, 35:41-53.
63. Jokelainen L., Meski T., Lindberg A., Soler J.M., Siitari-Kauppi M., Martin A., Eikenberg J. The determination of Cs-134 and Na-22 diffusion profiles in granodiorite using gamma spectroscopy. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. 2013, 295:2153-2161.
64. Kersting A.B. Impact of colloidal transport on radionuclide migration. Radionuclide Behaviour in the Natural Environment 2012, 384-410. Woodhouse Publishing. H. Poinssot (Ed.).
65. Kinoshita M., Tobin H., Ashi J., Kimura G., Lallemant S., Screaton E. J., Curewitz D., Masago H. and Moe K. T. (2009) Expedition 316 Site C007 - Expedition 316 Scientists. In: Proceedings of the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program, vols. 314/315/316. .
66. Kralj P. Trace elements in medium-temperature (40-80 degrees C) thermal waters from the Mura basin (North-Eastern Slovenia). Environ. Geol. 2004, 46:622-629.
67. Laaksoharju M. and Wallin B. (1997) Evolution of the groundwater chemistry at the Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory. In: Proceedings of the Second Äspö International Geochemistry Workshop, June 6-7, 1995. ICR-97-04. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
68. Laaksoharju M. and Wold S. (2005) The Colloid Investigations Conducted at the Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory during 2000-2004, TR-05-20. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
69. Laaksoharju M., Degueldre C. and Skårman C. (1995) Studies of Colloids and Their Importance for Repository Performance Assessment, TR-95-24. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
70. Laaksoharju M., Skarman C., Skarman E. Multivariate mixing and mass balance (M3) calculations, a new tool for decoding hydrogeochemical information. Appl. Geochem. 1999, 14:861-871.
71. Laaksoharju M., Tullborg E.L., Wikberg P., Wallin B., Smellie J. Hydrogeochemical conditions and evolution at the Äspö HRL, Sweden. Appl. Geochem. 1999, 14:835-859.
72. Laaksoharju M., Gascoyne M., Gurban I. Understanding groundwater chemistry using mixing models. Appl. Geochem. 2008, 23:1921-1940.
73. Laaksoharju M., Smellie J., Tullborg E.L., Gimeno M., Molinero J., Gurban I., Hallbeck L. Hydrogeochemical evaluation and modelling performed within the Swedish site investigation programme. Appl. Geochem. 2008, 23:1761-1795.
74. Laaksoharju M., Smellie J., Tullborg E.-L., Wallin B., Drake H., Gascoyne M., Gimeno M., Gurban I., Hallbeck L., Molinero J., Nilsson A.-C. and Waber N. (2009) Bedrock Hydrogeochemistry Laxemar - Site Descriptive Modelling SDM-Site Laxemar, R-08-93. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
75. Landström O. and Tullborg E.-L. (1995) Interactions of Trace Elements with Fracture Filling Minerals from the Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory, TR-95-13. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
76. Landström O., Tullborg E.-L., Eriksson G. and Sandell Y. (2001) Effects of glacial/post-glacial weathering compared with hydrothermal alteration - implications for matrix diffusion. Results from Drillcore Studies in Porphyritic Quartz Monzodiorite from Äspö SE Sweden, R-01-37. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
77. Larson S.A., Tullborg E.L., Cederbom C., Stiberg J.P. Sveconorwegian and Caledonian foreland basins in the Baltic Shield revealed by fission-track thermochronology. Terra Nova 1999, 11:210-215.
78. Lee C.-P., Wu M.-C., Tsai T.-L., Wei H.-J., Men L.-C., Lin T.-Y. Comparative study on retardation behavior of Cs in crushed and intact rocks: two potential repository host rocks in the Taiwan area. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. 2012, 293:579-586.
79. Lidmar-Bergström K. Long term morphotectonic evolution in Sweden. Geomorphology 1996, 16:33-59.
80. Lipson D.S., McCray J.E., Thyne G.D. Using PHREEQC to simulate solute transport in fractured bedrock. Ground Water 2007, 45:468-472.
81. Liu C.X., Zachara J.M., Smith S.C., McKinley J.P., Ainsworth C.C. Desorption kinetics of radiocesium from subsurface sediments at Hanford Site, USA. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2003, 67:2893-2912.
82. Loges A., Wagner T., Kirnbauer T., Goeb S., Bau M., Berner Z., Markl G. Source and origin of active and fossil thermal spring systems, northern Upper Rhine Graben, Germany. Appl. Geochem. 2012, 27:1153-1169.
83. Louvat D., Michelot J.L., Aranyossy J.F. Origin and residence time of salinity in the Äspö groundwater system. Appl. Geochem. 1999, 14:917-925.
84. Lund B., Schmidt P. and Hieronymus C. (2009) Stress Evolution and Fault Stability during the Weichselian Glacial Cycle, TR-09-15. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
85. Maddock R. H., Hailwood E. A., Rhodes E. J. and Muir Wood R. (1993) Direct Fault Dating Trials at the Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory, TR-93-24. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
86. Mahara Y., Igarashi T., Hasegawa T., Miyakawa K., Tanaka Y., Kiho K. Dynamic changes in hydrogeochemical conditions caused by tunnel excavation at the Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory (HRL), Sweden. Appl. Geochem. 2001, 16:291-315.
87. Mathurin F.A., Åström M.E., Laaksoharju M., Kalinowski B.E., Tullborg E.-L. Effect of tunnel excavation on source and mixing of groundwater in a coastal granitoidic fracture network. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46:12779-12786.
88. Mazurek M., Jakob A., Bossart P. Solute transport in crystalline rocks at Äspö - I: geological basis and model calibration. J. Contam. Hydrol. 2003, 61:157-174.
89. McCarthy J.F., Zachara J.M. Subsurface transport of contaminants - mobile colloids in the subsurface environment may ater the transport of contaminants. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1989, 23:496-502.
90. Mccombie C., Chapman N. Principles and Standards for the Disposal of Long-lived Radioactive Wastes 2003, Pergamon. first ed.
91. McKinley J.P., Zachara J.M., Heald S.M., Dohnalkova A., Newville M.G., Sutton S.R. Microscale distribution of cesium sorbed to biotite and muscovite. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2004, 38:1017-1023.
92. Michard G. Behavior of major elements and some trace-elements (Li, Rb, Cs, Sr, Fe, Mn, W, F) in deep hot waters from granitic areas. Chem. Geol. 1990, 89:117-134.
93. Missana T., Garcia-Gutierrez M., Alonso U. Sorption of strontium onto illite/smectite mixed clays. Phys. Chem. Earth Parts A/B/C 2008, 33(Suppl. 1):S156-S162.
94. Molinero J., Samper J. Large-scale modeling of reactive solute transport in fracture zones of granitic bedrocks. J. Contam. Hydrol. 2006, 82:293-318.
95. Moller P., Geyer S., Salameh E., Dulski P. Sources of mineralization and salinization of thermal groundwater of Jordan. Acta Hydroch. Hydrob. 2006, 34:86-100.
96. Morgantini N., Frondini F., Cardellini C. Natural trace elements baselines and dissolved loads in groundwater from carbonate aquifers of central Italy. Phys. Chem. Earth 2009, 34:520-529.
97. Nordqvist R. (2008) Evaluation and Modelling of SWIW Tests Performered within the SKB Site Characterisation Programme, R-08-104. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
98. Nordstrom D.K., Ball J.W., Donahoe R.J., Whittemore D. Groundwater chemistry and water-rock interactions at stripa. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 1989, 53:1727-1740.
99. Nyberg G. and Wass E. (2009) Groundwater Monitoring Program. Report for October 2008-September 2009. Oskarshamn Site Investigation, P-09-67. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
100. Olofsson R.S., Rodushkin I., Axelsson M.D. Performance characteristics of a tandem spray chamber arrangement in double focusing sector field ICP-MS. J. Anal. Atom. Spectrom. 2000, 15:727-729.
101. Parkhurst D. L. and Appelo C. A. J. (1999) User's Guide to PhreeqC (Version 2) - A Comupter Program for Speciation, Batch-Reaction, One-Dimentional Transport, And Inverse Geochemical Calculations, Water-Resources Investigations Report 99-4259. U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, Colorado.
102. Parkhurst D. L. and Appelo C. A. J. (2013) Description of Input and Examples for PHREEQC Version 3 - A Computer Program for Speciation, Batch-Reaction, One-Dimensional Transport, and Inverse Geochemical Calculations, Techniques and Methods 6-A43. U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, Colorado.
103. Parry W.T., Downey L.M. Geochemistry of hydrothermal chlorite replacing igneous biotite. Clay Clay Mineral. 1982, 30:81-90.
104. Pearson F.J., Tournassat C., Gaucher E.C. Biogeochemical processes in a clay formation in situ experiment: part E - equilibrium controls on chemistry of pore water from the Opalinus Clay, Mont Terri Underground Research Laboratory, Switzerland. Appl. Geochem. 2011, 26:990-1008.
105. Pitkanen P., Lofman J., Koskinen L., Leino-Forsman H., Snellman M. Application of mass-balance and flow simulation calculations to interpretation of mixing at Äspö, Sweden. Appl. Geochem. 1999, 14:893-905.
106. Poinssot C., Baeyens B., Bradbury M.H. Experimental and modelling studies of caesium sorption on illite. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 1999, 63:3217-3227.
107. Pokrovsky O.S., Viers J., Shirokova L.S., Shevchenko V.P., Filipov A.S., Dupre B. Dissolved, suspended, and colloidal fluxes of organic carbon, major and trace elements in the Severnaya Dvina River and its tributary. Chem. Geol. 2010, 273:136-149.
108. Poteri A. Retention properties of flow paths in fractured rock. Hydrogeol. J. 2009, 17:1081-1092.
109. Puigdomenech I., Ambrosi J.-P., Eisenlohr L., Lartigue J.-E., Banwart S. A., Bateman K., Milodowski A. E., West J. M., Griffault L., Gustafsson E., Hama K., Yoshida H., Kotelnikova S., Pedersen K., Michaud V., Trotignon L., Rivas Perez J. and Tullborg E.-L. (2001). O2 depletion in granitic media. The REX Project, TR-01-05. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
110. Reimann C., Hall G.E.M., Siewers U., Bjorvatn K., Morland G., Skarphagen H., Strand T. Radon, fluoride and 62 elements as determined by ICP-MS in 145 Norwegian hard rock groundwater samples. Sci. Total Environ. 1996, 192:1-19.
111. Rhén I., Forsmark T., Hartley L., Jackson P., Roberts D., Swan D. and Gylling B. (2008) Hydrogeological conceptualisation and parameterisation. Site Descriptive Modelling SDM-Site Laxemar, R-08-78. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
112. Risberg J. (2002) Holocene sediment accumulation in the Äspö area. A Study of a Sediment Core, R-02-47. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
113. Rodushkin I., Nordlund P., Engstrom E., Baxter D.C. Improved multi-elemental analyses by inductively coupled plasma-sector field mass spectrometry through methane addition to the plasma. J. Anal. Atom. Spectrom. 2005, 20:1250-1255.
114. Rönnback P., Åström M. Hydrochemical patterns of a small lake and a stream in an uplifting area proposed as a repository site for spent nuclear fuel, Forsmark, Sweden. J. Hydrol. 2007, 344:223-235.
115. Salminen R., Chekushin V., Tenhola M., Bogatyrev I., Glavatskikh S., Fedotova V., Gregorauskiene V., Kashulina G., Niskavaara H., Polischuok A., Rissanen K., Selenok L., Tomilina O., Zhdanova L. Geochemical atlas of the eastern barents region. J. Geochem. Explor. 2004, 83:1-530.
116. Salminen R., Batista M. J., Bidovec M., Demetriades A., De Vivo B., De Vos W., Duris M., Gilucis A., Gregorauskiene V., Halamic J., Heitzmann P., Jordan G., Klaver G., Klein P., Lis J., Locutura J., Marsina K., Mazreku A., O'Connor P. J., Olsson S. Å., Ottesen R., Petersell V., Plant J. A., Reeder S., Salpeteur I., Sandström H., Siewers U., Steenfelt A. and Tarvainen T. (2005) Geochemical Atlas of Europe. Part 1: Background Information, Methodology and Maps. Espoo, Geological Survey of Finland.
117. Santos I.R., Burnett W.C., Chanton J., Mwashote B., Suryaputra I.G.N.A., Dittmar T. Nutrient biogeochemistry in a Gulf of Mexico subterranean estuary and groundwater-derived fluxes to the coastal ocean. Limnol. Oceanogr. 2008, 53:705-718.
118. Sasaki T., Terakado Y., Kobayashi T., Takagi I., Moriyama H. Analysis of sorption behavior of cesium ion on mineral components of granite. J. Nucl. Sci. Technol. 2007, 44:641-648.
119. Sawhney B.L. Selective sorption and fixation of cations by clay-minerals: a review. Clay Clay Mineral. 1972, 20:93-100.
120. Selnert E., Byegård J., Widestrand H., Carlsten S., Döse C. and Tullborg E.-L. (2009) Bedrock transport properties. Data evaluation and retardation model. Site Descriptive Modelling SDM-Site Laxemar, R-08-100. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
121. Sie P.M.J., Frape S.K. Evaluation of the groundwaters from the Stripa mine using stable chlorine isotopes. Chem. Geol. 2002, 182:565-582.
122. SKB (2006a) Hydrogeological evaluation. Preliminary Site Description Laxemar Subarea - Version 1.2., R-06-12. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
123. SKB (2006b) Long-term safety for KBS-3 repositories at Forsmark and Laxemar: a first evaluation. Main Report of the SR-Can Project, TR-06-09. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, (Sweden).
124. Smellie J.A.T., Laaksoharju M., Wikberg P. Äspö, SE Sweden: a natural groundwater flow model derived from hydrogeochemical observations. J. Hydrol. 1995, 172:147-169.
125. Sohlenius G., Sternbeck J., Andren E., Westman P. Holocene history of the Baltic Sea as recorded in a sediment core from the Gotland Deep. Mar. Geol. 1996, 134:183-201.
126. Sohlenius G., Bergman T., Snäll S., Lundin L., Lode E., Stendahl J., Riise A., Nilsson J., Johansson T. and Göransson M. (2006) Soils, quaternary deposits and bedrock in topographic lineaments situated in the Laxemar subarea. Oskarshamn Site Investigation, P-06-121. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
127. Stanfors R., Rhen I., Tullborg E.L., Wikberg P. Overview of geological and hydrogeological conditions of the Aspo Hard Rock Laboratory site. Appl. Geochem. 1999, 14:819-834.
128. Stumm W. Chemical interaction in particular separation. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1977, 11:1066-1070.
129. Tiren S.A., Askling P., Wanstedt S. Geologic site characterization for deep nuclear waste disposal in fractured rock based on 3D data visualization. Eng. Geol. 1999, 52:319-346.
130. Tröjbom M., Söderbäck B. and Kalinowski B. (2008) Hydrochemistry of surface water and shallow groundwater. site descriptive modelling SDM-site Laxemar. In: R-08-46 (ed. S. Stockholm). SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm. Sweden.
131. Tsukamoto M., Ohe T. Effects of biotite distribution on cesium diffusion in granite. Chem. Geol. 1993, 107:29-46.
132. Tullborg E.-L. and Hermanson J. (2007) Assignment of distribution of geologial structure type, complexity and parameters of the micro-structural model applicable to the predictive modelling of the BS2B sorbing experiment. TRUE Block Scale Continuation Project - Final Report. TR-06-42. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
133. Tullborg E.-L., Larson S.Å. Porosity in crystalline rocks - a matter of scale. Eng. Geol. 2006, 84:75-83.
134. Tullborg E.-L., Drake H., Sandstrom B. Palaeohydrogeology: a methodology based on fracture mineral studies. Appl. Geochem. 2008, 23:1881-1897.
135. Uchida M., Dershowitz W., Lee G., Shuttle D. An empirical probabilistic approach for constraining the uncertainty of long-term solute transport predictions in fractured rock using in situ tracer experiments. Hydrogeol. J. 2009, 17:1093-1110.
136. Vasyukova E.V., Pokrovsky O.S., Viers J., Oliva P., Dupre B., Martin F., Candaudap F. Trace elements in organic- and iron-rich surficial fluids of the boreal zone: Assessing colloidal forms via dialysis and ultrafiltration. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2010, 74:449-468.
137. Viani B. and Bruton C. (1997) In assessing the role of cation exchange in controlling groundwater chemistry during fluid mixing in a fracture granite at Äspö, Sweden. In: 2nd Äspö Internat. Chem. Workshop (ed. W. Laaksoharju). SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
138. Vilks P., Bachinski D.B. Colloid and suspended particle migration experiments in a granite fracture. J. Contam. Hydrol. 1996, 21:269-279.
139. Waber H.N., Smellie J.A.T. Characterisation of pore water in crystalline rocks. Appl. Geochem. 2008, 23:1834-1861.
140. Waber H.N., Gimmi T., Smellie J.A.T. Reconstruction of palaeoinfiltration during the Holocene using porewater data (Laxemar, Sweden). Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2012, 94:109-127.
141. Wahlgren C.-H., Curtis P., Hermanson J., Forssberg O., Johan. Ö., Fox A., La Pointe P., Drake H., Triumf C.-A., Mattsson H., Thunehed H. and Juhlin C. (2008) Geology Laxemar. Site Descriptive Modelling SDM-Site Laxemar, R-08-54. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
142. Wang T.-H., Li M.-H., Wei Y.-Y., Teng S.-P. Desorption of cesium from granite under various aqueous conditions. Appl. Radiat. Isot. 2010, 68:2140-2146.
143. Werner K. (2009) Description of surface hydrology and near-surface hydrogeology at Laxemar-Simpevarp. Site Descriptive Modelling SDM-Site Laxemar, R-08-71. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
144. Werner K., Öhman J., Holgersson B., Rönnback K. and Marelius F. (2008) Meteorological, hydrological and hydrogeological monitoring data and near-surface hydrogeological properties data from Laxemar-Simpevarp. Site Descriptive Modelling SDM-Site Laxemar, R-08-73. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
145. Wikström M., Forsmark T., Zetterlund M., Forssman I. and Rhén I. (2008) Correlation of Posiva Flow Log anomalies to core mapped features in KLX12A, KLX13A, KLX14A, KLX15A and KLX16A. Oskarshamn Site Investigation, P-07-214. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
146. Winberg A., Andersson P., Hermanson J., Byegård J., Cvetkovic V. and Birgersson L. (2000) Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory. Final Report of the First Stage of the Tracer Retention Understanding Experiments, TR-00-07. SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company), Stockholm, Sweden.
147. Zachara J.M., Smith S.C., Liu C.X., McKinley J.P., Serne R.J., Gassman P.L. Sorption of Cs+ to micaceous subsurface sediments from the Hanford site, USA. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2002, 66:193-211.