Wildland fire emissions, carbon, and climate: Plume rise, atmospheric transport, and chemistry processes

Forest Ecology and Management

Volumn 317, Issue , 2014, Pages 70-79

  Heilman, Warren E ^a   Liu, Yongqiang ^a   Urbanski, Shawn ^b   Kovalev, Vladimir ^b   Mickler, Robert ^c  

^a USDA FOREST SERVICE   (United States)

^b ROCKY MOUNTAIN RESEARCH STATION   (United States)

^c ALION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY   (United States)

Author keywords

Atmospheric chemistry; Atmospheric transport; Fire emissions; Plume rise; Wildland fire

Indexed keywords

ATMOSPHERIC AEROSOLS; ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY; ATMOSPHERIC RADIATION; CHEMICAL REACTIONS; DYNAMICS; FIRES; FLUID DYNAMICS; GREENHOUSE GASES;

ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT; FIRE EMISSIONS; LONG-RANGE ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORTS; PLUME RISE; REMOTE SENSING MONITORING; TROPOSPHERE-STRATOSPHERE EXCHANGE; WILDLAND FIRE; WILDLAND FIRE EMISSIONS;

ATMOSPHERIC MOVEMENTS;

AEROSOL; ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY; ATMOSPHERIC DEPOSITION; ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT; CONCENTRATION (COMPOSITION); GREENHOUSE GAS; PLUME; RADIATIVE FORCING; REMOTE SENSING; WILDFIRE;

EID: 84895918118     PISSN: 03781127     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.foreco.2013.02.001     Document Type: Article

References (110)

1. Achtemeier G.L. Predicting dispersion and deposition of ash from burning cane. Sugar Cane 1998, 1:17-22.
2. Achtemeier, G., Goodrick, S., Liu, Y.-Q., 2004. On the multiple-core updraft smoke plume problem: is the genie out of the bottle? In: Proceedings of EPA's 16th Annual International Emissions Inventory Conference, May 2007, Raleigh, NC, pp. 1-14. <>. http://epa.gov/ttn/chief/conference/ei16/.
3. Achtemeier G.L., Goodrick S.A., Liu Y.-Q., Garcia-Menendez F., Hu Y., Odman M.T. Modeling smoke from wildland fires: plume-rise and smoke dispersion from Southern United States prescribed burns with Daysmoke. Atmosphere 2011, 2:358-388. 10.3390/atmos2030358.
4. Akagi S.K., Yokelson R.J., Wiedinmyer C., Alvarado M.J., Reid J.S., Karl T., Crounse J.D., Wennberg P.O. Emission factors for open and domestic biomass burning for use in atmospheric models. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2011, 11(9):4039-4072. 10.5194/acp-11-4039-2011.
5. Akagi S.K., Craven J.S., Taylor J.W., McMeeking G.R., Yokelsson R.J., Burling I.R., Urbanski S.P., Wold C.E., Seinfeld J.H., Coe H., Alvardo M.J., et al. Evolution of trace gases and particles emitted by a chaparral fire in California. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2012, 12(3):1397-1421. 10.5194/acp-12-1397-2012.
6. Amiridis V., Giannakaki E., Balis D.S., Gerasopoulos E., Pytharoulis I., Zanis P., Kazadzis S., Melas D., Zerefos C. Smoke injection heights from agricultural burning in Eastern Europe as seen by CALIPSO. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2010, 10:19247-19276. 10.5194/acpd-10-19247-2010.
7. Anderson, G.K., Sandberg, D.V., Norheim, R.A., 2004. Fire Emission Production Simulator (FEPS) User's Guide. <>. http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/fera/feps/FEPS_users_guide.pdf.
8. Bertschi I.T., Jaffe D.A., Jaeglé L., Price H.U., Dennison J.B. PHOBEA/ITCT 2002 airborne observations of transpacific transport of ozone, CO, volatile organic compounds, and aerosols to the northeast Pacific: Impacts of Asian anthropogenic and Siberian boreal fire emissions. J. Geophys. Res. 2004, 109:D23S12. 10.1029/2003JD004328.
9. Briggs G.A. Plume rise predictions. Lectures on Air Pollution and Environmental Impact Analysis 1975, 59-111. American Meteorological Society. D.A. Haugen (Ed.).
10. Burling I.R., Yokelson R.J., Griffith D.W.T., Johnson T.J., Veres P., Roberts J.M., Warneke C., Urbanski S.P., Reardon J., Weise D.R., Hao W.M., et al. Laboratory measurements of trace gas emissions from biomass burning of fuel types from the southeastern and southwestern United States. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2010, 10(22):11115-11130. 10.5194/acp-10-11115-2010.
11. Byun, D.W., Ching, J., 1999. Science Algorithms of the EPA Model-3 Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) Modeling System. Research Triangle Park (NC): EPA/600/R-99/030, National Exposure Research Laboratory.
12. Byun D., Schere K.L. Review of the governing equations, computational algorithms, and other components of the Models-3 Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) Modeling System. App. Mech. Rev. 2006, 59:51-77.
13. Clements C.B., Zhong S., Goodrick S., Li J., Potter B.E., Bian X., Heilman W.E., Charney J.J., Perna R., Jang M., Lee D., Patel M., Street S., Aumann G. Observing the dynamics of wildland grass fires: FireFlux - a field validation experiment. Bull. Am. Met. Soc. 2007, 88:1369-1382.
14. Cofer W.R., Winstead E.L., Stocks B.J., Overbay L.W., Goldammer J.G., Cahoon D.R., Levine J.S. Emissions from boreal forest fires: are the atmospheric impacts underestimated?. Biomass Burning in South America, Southeast Asia, and Temperate and Boreal Ecosystems, and the Oil Fires of Kuwait 1996, vol. 2:834-839. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. J.S. Levine (Ed.).
15. Colarco P.R., Schoeberl M.R., Doddridge B.G., Marufu L.T., Torres O., Welton E.J. Transport of smoke from Canadian forest fires to the surface near Washington, DC: injection height, entrainment, and optical properties. J. Geophys. Res. 2004, 109:D06203. 10.1029/2003JD004248.
16. 3Cl and COS. Nature 1979, 282:253-256.
17. Damoah R., Spichtinger N., Forster C., James P., Mattis I., Wandinger U., Beirle S., Wagner T., Stohl A. Around the world in 17 days - hemispheric-scale transport of forest fire smoke from Russia in May 2003. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2004, 4:1311-1321.
18. Diner, D.J., Nelson, D.L., Chen, Y., Kahn, R.A., Logan, J., Leung, F., Val Martin, M., 2008. Quantitative studies of wildfire smoke injection heights with the Terra Multi-angle Imaging Spectro Radiometer. In: Hao, W.M. (Ed.), Remote Sensing of Fire: Science and Application. Proceedings of the SPIE 7089, pp. 708908-708909.
19. Duck T., Firanski B.J., Millet D.B., Goldstein A.H., Allan J., Holzinger R., Worsnop D.R., White A.B., Stohl A., Dickinson C.S., van Donkelaar A. Transport of forest fire emissions from Alaska and the Yukon Territory to Nova Scotia during summer 2004. J. Geophys. Res. 2007, 112:D10S44. 10.1029/2006JD007716.
20. Freitas S.R., Longo K.M., Chatfield R., Latham D., Silva Dias M.A.F., Andreae M.O., Prins E., Santo J.C., Gielow R., Carvalho J.A. Including the sub-grid scale plume rise of vegetation fires in low resolution atmospheric transport models. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2006, 7:3385-3398.
21. Fromm M.D., Servranckx R. Transport of forest fire smoke above the tropopause by supercell convection. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2003, 30(10):1542. 10.1029/2002GL016820.
22. Fromm M., Alfred J., Hoppel K., Hornstein J., Bevilacqua R., Shettle E., Servranckx R., Li Z., Stocks B. Observations of boreal forest fire smoke in the stratosphere by POAM III, SAGE II, and LIDAR in 1998. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2000, 9:1407-1410.
23. Fuelberg H.E., Porter M.J., Kiley C.M., Halland J.J., Morse D. Meteorological conditions and anomalies during the Intercontinental Chemical Transport Experiment - North America. J. Geophys. Res. 2007, 112:D12S06. 10.1029/2006JD007734.
24. Fujii T., Fukuchi T. Laser Remote Sensing 2005, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 888 pp.
25. Gabbert, B., 2010. Wildfire smoke in the stratosphere. Wildfire Today, October 22, 2010 issue.
26. Garcia-Menendez F., Yano A., Hu Y., Odman M.T. An adaptive grid version of CMAQ for improving the resolution of plumes. Atmos. Poll. Res. 2010, 1:239-249.
27. Goodrick, S.L., Achtemeier, G.L., Larkin, N.K., Liu, Y., Strand, T.M., 2012. Modelling smoke transport from wildland fires: a review. Int. J. Wildland Fire, >. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/WF11116.
28. Grell G., Freitas S.R., Stuefer M., Fast J. Inclusion of biomass burning in WRF-Chem: impact of wildfires on weather forecasts. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2011, 11:5289-5303. 10.5194/acp-11-5289-2011.
29. Guldberg P.H. A comparison study of plume rise formulas applied to tall stack data. J. Appl. Meteor. 1975, 14:1402-1405.
30. Hallquist M., Wenger J.C., Baltensperger U., Rudich Y., Simpson D., Claeys M., Dommen J., Donahue N.M., George C., Goldstein A.H., Hamilton J.F., et al. The formation, properties and impact of secondary organic aerosol: current and emerging issues. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2009, 9(14):5155-5236. 10.5194/acp-9-5155-2009.
31. Harrison, H., Hardy, C., 2002. Plume rise from gigawatt fires: observations and models. <>. http://www.atmos.washington.edu/harrison/reports/plume3.pdf.
32. Hiers, J.K., Ottmar, R., Butler, B.W., Clements, C., Vihnanek, R., Dickinson, M.B., O'Brien, J., 2009. An overview of the prescribed fire combustion and atmospheric dynamics research experiment (Rx-CADRE). In: Rideout-Hanzak, S. (Ed.), 4th International Fire Ecology and Management Congress: Fire as a Global Process.
33. 3. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1998, 25:2655-2658.
34. Hoff R.M., Palm S.P., Engel-Cox J.A., Spinhirne J. GLAS long-range transport observation of the 2003 California forest fire plumes to the northeastern US. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2005, 32:L22S08. 10.1029/2005GL023723.
35. Hoinka K.P. The tropopause: discovery, definition and demarcation. Meteorol. Z. N. F. 1997, 6:281-303.
36. Holton J.R., Haynes P.H., McIntyre E.M., Douglass A.R., Rood R.B., Pfister L. Stratosphere-troposphere exchange. Rev. Geophys. 1995, 33:403-439.
37. Houyoux, M., Vukovich, J., Seppanen, C., Brandmeyer, J.E., 2002. SMOKE User Manual, MCNC Environmental Modeling Center.
38. Jaffe D.A., Wigder N.L. Ozone production from wildfires: a critical review. Atmos. Environ. 2012, 51:1-10. 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.11.063.
39. 3 concentrations in the western US. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42(16):5885-5891. 10.1021/es800084k.
40. Jeong J.I., Park R.J., Youn D. Effects of Siberian forest fires on air quality in East Asia during May 2003 and its climate implication. Atmos. Environ. 2008, 42(39):8910-8922. 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.08.037.
41. Jones, T.A., Christopher, S.A., 2008. Variability of Georgia and Florida air quality as a function of radar derived aerosol coverage and height. In: 15th Joint Conference on the Applications of Air Pollution Meteorology, Springer, Berlin, J1.3.
42. Jost H.-J., Drdla K., Stohl A., Pfister L., Loewenstein M., Lopez J.P., Hudson P.K., Murphy D.M., Cziczo D.J., Fromm M., Bui T.P., Dean-Day J., Gerbig C., Mahoney M.J., Richard E.C., Spichtinger N., Pittman J.V., Weinstock E.M., Wilson J.C., Xueref I. In situ observations of mid-latitude forest fire plumes deep in the stratosphere. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2004, 31:L11101. 10.1029/2003GL019253.
43. Kahn R.A., Li W.H., Moroney C., Diner D.J., Martonchik J.V., Fishbein E. Aerosol source plume physical characteristics from space-based multiangle imaging. J. Geophys. Res. 2007, 112:D11205. 10.1029/2006JD007647.
44. Kahn R.A., Chen Y., Nelson D.L., Leung F.Y., Li Q., Diner D.J., Logan J.A. Wildfire smoke injection heights - two perspectives from space. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2008, 35:L04809. 10.1029/2007GL032165.
45. Kiefer, M.T., Zhong, S., Heilman, W.E., Charney, J.J., Bian, X., Shadbolt, R.P., 2011a. Development of a fine scale smoke dispersion modeling system: part I - validation of the canopy model component. In: 9th Symposium on Fire and Forest Meteorology, American Meteorological Society, Palm Springs, CA. <>. http://ams.confex.com/ams/9FIRE/webprogram/9FIRE.html.
46. Kiefer, M.T., Heilman, W.E., Zhong, S., Charney, J.J., Bian, X., Shadbolt, R.P., Hom, J.L., Clark, K.L., Skowronski, N., Gallagher, M., Patterson, M., 2011b. Development of a fine scale smoke dispersion modeling system: part II - case study of a prescribed burn in the New Jersey Pine Barrens. In: 9th Symposium on Fire and Forest Meteorology, American Meteorological Society, Palm Springs, CA. <>. http://ams.confex.com/ams/9FIRE/webprogram/9FIRE.html.
47. Koch D., Hansen J. Distant origins of Arctic black carbon: a Goddard Institute for Space Studies ModelE experiment. J. Geophys. Res. 2005, 110:D04204. 10.1029/2004JD005296.
48. Kovalev V.A., Eichinger W.E. Elastic Lidar: Theory, Practice, and Analysis Methods 2004, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 615 pp.
49. Kovalev, V., Hao, W.M., 2008. Real-Time Monitoring of the Three-Dimensional Distribution of Smoke Aerosol Levels from Prescribed Fires and Wildfires. Final Report, Joint Fire Science Program, Project 04-1-1-04. <>. http://www.firescience.gov/projects/04-1-1-04/project/04-1-1-04_final_report.pdf.
50. Kovalev, V.A., Hao, W.M., Wold, C., Newton, J., Latham, D.J., Petkov, A., 2008. Investigation of optical characteristics and smoke-plume dynamics in the wildfire vicinity with lidar. In: Remote Sensing of Fire: Science and Application, Proc. SPIE 7089, [SPIE, Bellingham, WA, 2008], pp. 708906-1-108906-8.
51. Kovalev V.A., Petkov A., Wold C., Urbanski S., Hao W.M. Determination of smoke plume and layer heights using scanning lidar data. Appl. Opt. 2009, 48:5287-5294.
52. Kovalev V.A., Petkov A., Wold C., Hao W.M. Lidar monitoring of regions of intense backscatter with poorly defined boundaries. Appl. Opt. 2011, 50:103-109.
53. Kovalev V.A., Petkov A., Wold C., Hao W.M. Modified technique for processing multiangle lidar data measured in clear and moderately polluted atmospheres. Appl. Opt. 2011, 50:4957-4966.
54. Labonne M., Breon F.M., Chevallier F. Injection height of biomass burning aerosols as seen from a spaceborne lidar. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2007, 34:L11806. 10.1029/2007GL029311.
55. Larkin N.K., O'Neill S.M., Solomon R., Raffuse S., Strand T., Sullivan D., Krull C., Rorig M., Peterson J., Ferguson S.A. The BlueSky smoke modeling framework. Int. J. Wildland Fire 2009, 18:906-920.
56. Larkin, N.K., Strand, T.M., DeWinter, J.L, Brown, S.G., Raffuse, S.M., Craig, K.J, Hafner, H.R., Callahan, J., Solomon, R.C., in press. An atlas and daily forecasts for assessing the potential for emissions transport to the Arctic. General Technical Report, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Seattle, WA.
57. Latham, D., 1994. PLUMP: A One-Dimensional Plume Predictor and Cloud Model for Fire and Smoke Managers, General Technical Report INT-GTR-314, Intermountain Research Station, USDA Forest Service.
58. Lavrov A., Utkin A., Vilar R., Fernandes A. Application of lidar in ultraviolet, visible and infrared ranges for early forest fire detection. Appl. Phys. B 2003, 76:87-95.
59. Liu Y.-Q., Achtemeier G., Goodrick S., 2008. Sensitivity of air quality simulation to smoke plume rise. J. Appl. Remote Sensing 2, 021503. http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/1.2938723.
60. Liu Y.-Q., Goodrick S.L., Achtemeier G.L., Jackson W.A., Qu J., Wang W. Smoke incursions into urban areas: simulation of a Georgia prescribed burn. Int. J. Wildland Fire 2009, 18:336-348. 10.1071/WF08082.
61. Liu Y.-Q., Achtemeier G.L., Goodrick S.L., Jackson W.A. Important parameters for smoke plume rise simulation with Daysmoke. Atmos. Poll. Res. 2010, 1:250-259.
62. Liu, Y.-Q., Goodrick, S., Achtemeier, G., Forbus, K., Combs, D., 2012. Smoke plume height measurement of prescribed burns in the southeastern United States. Int. J. Wildland Fire. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/WF11072.
63. Liu, Y.-Q., Goodrick, S., Heilman, W., 2014. Wildland fire emissions, carbon, and climate: Wildfire-climate interactions. Forest Ecol. Manage. 317, 80-96.
64. Mandel J., Beezley J.D., Kochanski A.K. Coupled atmosphere-wildland fire modeling with WRF-Fire version 3.3. Geosci. Model Dev. Discuss. 2011, 4:497-545. 10.5194/gmdd-4-497-2011.
65. McKendry I., Strawbridge K., Karumudi M.L., O'Neill N., Macdonald A.M., Leaitch R., Jaffe D., Cottle P., Sharma S., Sheridan P., Ogren J. Californian forest fire plumes over southwestern British Columbia: Lidar, sunphotometry, and mountaintop chemistry observations. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2011, 11:465-477.
66. Melnikov V.M., Zrnic D.S., Rabin R.M., Zhang P. Radar polarimetric signatures of fire plumes in Oklahoma. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2008, 35:L14815. 10.1029/2008GL034311.
67. Mikkelsen T., Jorgensen H.E., Nielsen M., Ott S. Similarity scaling of surface-released smoke plumes. Bound.-Layer Meteor. 2002, 105:483-505.
68. Morris G.A., Hersey S., Thompson A.M., Pawson S., Nielsen J.E., Colarco P.R., McMillan W.W., Stohl A., Turquety S., Warner J., Johnson B.J., Kucsera T.L., Larko D.E., Oltmans S.J., Witte J.C. Alaskan and Canadian forest fires exacerbate ozone pollution over Houston, Texas, on 19 and 20 July 2004. J. Geophys. Res. 2006, 111:D24S03. 10.1029/2006JD007090.
69. Mote P.W., Rosenlof K.H., McIntyre M.E., Carr E.S., Grille J.C., Holton J.R., Kinnersley J.S., Pumphrey H.C., Russell J.M., Waters J.W. An atmospheric tape recorder: the imprint of tropical tropopause temperatures on stratospheric water vapor. J. Geophys. Res. 1996, 101:3989-4006.
70. Pahlow M., Kleissl J., Parlange M.B., Ondov J.M., Harrison D. Atmospheric boundary-layer structure observed during a haze event due to forest-fire smoke. Bound.-Layer Meteor. 2005, 114:53-70.
71. Pfister G.G., Hess P.G., Emmons L.K., Rasch P.J., Vitt F.M. Impact of the summer 2004 Alaska fires on top of the atmosphere clear-sky radiation fluxes. J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos. 2008, 113(D2). 10.1029/2007JD008797.
72. Plumb R.A. A "tropical pipe" model of stratospheric transport. J. Geophys. Res. 1996, 101:3957-3972.
73. Poulida O., Dickerson R.R., Heymsfield A. Stratosphere-troposphere exchange in a midlatitude mesoscale convective complex: 1. Observations. J. Geophys. Res. 1996, 101:6823-6836.
74. Pouliot, G., Pierce, T., Benjey, W., O'Neill, S.M., Ferguson, S.A., 2005. Wildfire emission modeling: integrating BlueSky and SMOKE. In: 14th International Emission Inventory Conference, "Transforming Emission Inventories Meeting Future Challenges Today", Las Vegas, NV.
75. Raffuse, S., Wade, K., Stone, J., Sullivan, D., Larkin, N., Strand, T., Solomon, R., 2009. Validation of modeled smoke plume injection heights using satellite data. In: Eighth Symposium on Fire and Forest Meteorology, Kalispell, MT, USA, 12-15 October 2009.
76. Raffuse S.M., Craig K.J., Larkin N.K., Strand T.T., Sullivan D.C., Wheeler N.J.M., Solomon R. An evaluation of modeled plume injection height with satellite-derived observed plume height. Atmosphere 2012, 3:103-123.
77. Ray E.A., Moore F.L., Elkins J.W., Dutton G.S., Fahey D.W., Vömel H., Oltmans S.J., Rosenlof K.H. Transport into the Northern Hemisphere lowermost stratosphere revealed by in situ tracer measurements. J. Geophys. Res. 1999, 104(D21):26,565-26,580. 10.1029/1999JD900323.
78. Sapkota A., Symons J.M., Kleissl J., Wang L., Parlange M.B., Ondov J., Breysse P.N., Diette G.B., Eggleston P.A., Buckley T.J. Impact of the 2002 Canadian forest fires on particulate matter air quality in Baltimore City. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2005, 39:24-32.
79. Seiler W., Crutzen P.J. Estimates of gross and net fluxes of carbon between the biosphere and atmosphere. Clim. Change 1980, 2:207-247.
80. Seinfeld J.H., Pandis S.N. Atmsopheric Chemistry and Physics - From Air Pollution to Climate Change 2006, John Wiley & Sons Inc., New Jersey. second ed.
81. Seto D., Clements C.B. Fire whirl evolution observed during a valley wind-sea breeze reversal. J. Combust. 2011, 2011. 10.1155/2011/569475.
82. Seto D., Clements C.B., Heilman W.E. Turbulence spectra measured during fire front passage. Agric. Forest Meteorol. 2013, 169:195-210.
83. Sharma S., Andrews E., Barrie L.A., Ogren J.A., Lavoué D. Variations and sources of the equivalent black carbon in the high Arctic revealed by long-term observations at Alert and Barrow: 1989-2003. J. Geophys. Res. 2006, 111:D14208. 10.1029/2005JD006581.
84. Shindell D.T., Chin M., Dentener F., Doherty R.M., Faluvegi G., Flore A.M., Hess P., Koch D.M., MacKenzie I.A., Sanderson M.G., Schultz M.G., Schulz M., Stevenson D.S., Teich H., Textor C., Wild O., Bergmann D.J., Bey I., Bian H., Cuvelier C., Duncan B.N., Folberth G., Horowitz L.W., Jonson J., Kaminski J.W., Marmer E., Park R., Pringle K.J., Schroeder S., Szopa S., Takemura T., Zeng G., Keating T.J., Zuber A. A multi-model assessment of pollution transport to the Arctic. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2008, 8:5353-5372.
85. Shindell D.T., Faluvegi G., Koch D.M., Schmidt G.A., Unger N., Bauer S.E. Improved attribution of climate forcing to emissions. Science 2009, 326(5953):716-718. 10.1126/science.1174760.
86. Stohl A. A 1-year Lagrangian "climatology" of airstreams in the Northern Hemisphere troposphere and lowermost stratosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 2001, 106:7263-7279.
87. Stohl A., Forster C., Eckhardt S., Spichtinger N., Huntrieser H., Heland J., Schlager H., Wilhelm S., Arnold F., Cooper O. A backward modeling study of intercontinental pollution transport using aircraft measurements. J. Geophys. Res. 2003, 108:4370. 10.1029/2002JD002862.
88. Stohl A., Bonasoni P., Cristofanelli P., Collins W., Feichter J., Frank A., Forster C., Gerasopoulos E., Gäggeler H., James P., Kentarchos T., Kromp-Kolb H., Krüger B., Land C., Meloen J., Papayannis A., Priller A., Seibert P., Sprenger M., Roelofs G.J., Scheel H.E., Schnabel C., Siegmund P., Tobler L., Trickl T., Wernli H., Wirth V., Zanis P., Zerefos C. Stratosphere-troposphere exchange: a review, and what we have learned from STACCATO. J. Geophys. Res. 2003, 108:8516. 10.1029/2002JD002490.
89. Strand T.M., Larkin N., Craig K.J., Raffuse S., Sullivan D., Solomon R., Rorig M., Wheeler N., Pryden D. Analyses of BlueSky Gateway PM2.5 predictions during the 2007 Southern and 2008 northern California fires. J. Geophys. Res. 2012, 117:D17301. 10.1029/2012JD017627.
90. 5 mass and composition in the southeastern United States. Atmos. Environ. 2001, 35:6539-6547.
91. Task Force on Hemispheric Transport of Air Pollution (TF HTAP), Hemispheric Transport of Air Pollution, 2010. Economic Commission for Europe, United Nations.
92. 5: a Georgia case study. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43:299-305.
93. Tsai, P.S., Frasier, S.J., Goodrick, S., Achtemeier, G., Odman, M.T., 2009. Combined lidar and radar observations of smoke plumes from prescribed burns. In: Fourth Symposium on Lidar Atmospheric Applications, 10-16, 2009. Phoenix, AZ.
94. Urbanski, S., Kovalev, V.A., Hao, W.M., Wold, C., Petkov, A., 2010. Lidar and airborne investigation of smoke plume characteristics: Kootenai Creek Fire case study. In: Proceedings of 25th International Laser Radar Conference, St. Petersburg, Russia, Tomsk. Publishing House of IAO SB RAS. p. 1051-1054.
95. van der Werf G.R., Randerson J.T., Giglio L., Collatz G.J., Mu M., Kasibhatla P.S., Morton D.C., DeFries R.S., Jin Y., van Leeuwen T.T. Global fire emissions and the contribution of deforestation, savanna, forest, agricultural, and peat fires (1997-2009). Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2010, 10(23):11707-11735. 10.5194/acp-10-11707-2010.
96. Vaughan G., Timmis C. Transport of near-tropopause air into the lower midlatitude stratosphere. Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 1998, 124:1559-1578.
97. Waibel A.E., Fischer H., Wienhold F.G., Siegmund P.C., Lee B., Ström J., Lelieveld J., Crutzen P.J. Highly elevated carbon monoxide concentrations in the upper troposphere and lowermost stratosphere at northern midlatitudes during the STREAM II summer campaign in 1994. Chemos. - Global Change Sci. 1999, 1:233-248.
98. Wang J., Christopher S.A., Nair U.S., Reid J.S., Prins E.M., Szykman J., Hand J.L. Mesoscale modeling of Central American smoke transport to the United States: 1. ''Top-down'' assessment of emission strength and diurnal variation impacts. J. Geophys. Res. 2006, 111:D05S17. 10.1029/2005JD006416.
99. Warneke C., Bahreini R., Brioude J., Brock C.A., de Gouw J.A., Fahey D.W., Froyd K.D., Holloway J.S., Middlebrook A., Miller L., Montzka S., Murphy D.M., Peischl J., Ryerson T.B., Schwarz J.P., Spackman J.R., Veres P. Biomass burning in Siberia and Kazakhstan as an important source for haze over the Alaskan Arctic in April 2008. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2009, 36:L02813. 10.1029/2008GL036194.
100. Waugh D.W. Seasonal variation of isentropic transport out of the tropical stratosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 1996, 101:4007-4023.
101. Wernli H., Bourqui M. A Lagrangian "1-year climatology" of (deep) cross-troposphere exchange in the extratropical Northern Hemisphere. J. Geophys. Res. 2002, 107(D2):4021-4026. 10.1029/2001JD000812.
102. Wiedinmyer C., Akagi S.K., Yokelson R.J., Emmons L.K., Al-Saadi J.A., Orlando J.J., Soja A.J. The Fire INventory from NCAR (FINN): A high resolution global model to estimate the emissions from open burning. Geosci. Model Dev. 2011, 4(3):625-641. 10.5194/gmd-4-625-2011.
103. Winker, D., Vaughan, M., Hunt, W., 2006. The CALIPSO Mission and Initial Results from CALIOP. Proc. SPIE, 6409, 640902, doi: 10.1117/12.698003.
104. Wold, C.E., Urbanski, S., Kovalev, V., Petrov, A., Hao, W.M., 2010. Validation of smoke plume rise models using ground based lidar. In: Proceedings of 3rd Fire Behavior and Fuels Conference, Spokane, Washington, USA, International Association of Wildland Fire, October 25-29, 2010.
105. World Meteorological Organization (WMO), 1986. Atmospheric ozone 1985. WMO Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project Report 20, Geneva.
106. Wotawa G., Trainer M. The influence of Canadian forest fires on pollutant concentrations in the United States. Science 2000, 288:324-328.
107. WRAP, 2005. 2002 Fire Emission Inventory for the WRAP Region Phase II (prepared by Air Sciences Inc).
108. Wu S., Mickley L.J., Jacob D.J., Logan J.A., Yantosca R.M., Rind D. Why are there large differences between models in global budgets of tropospheric ozone?. J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos. 2007, 112(D5). 10.1029/2006JD007801.
109. Xue M., Droegemeier K.K., Wong V. The advanced regional prediction system (ARPS) - a multi-scale nonhydrostatic atmosphere simulation and prediction model. Part I: model dynamics and verification. Meteor. Atmos. Phys. 2000, 75:463-485.
110. Xue M., Wang D., Gao J., Brewster K., Droegemeier K.K. The advanced regional prediction system (ARPS), storm-scale numerical weather prediction and data assimilation. Meteor. Atmos. Phys. 2003, 82:139-170.