The impact of obesity and exercise on cognitive aging

Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience

Volumn 5, Issue DEC, 2013, Pages

  Chan, John S Y ^a   Yan, Jin H ^b,c   Gregory Payne, V ^d  

^a CHINESE UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG   (Hong Kong)

^b SHENZHEN UNIVERSITY   (China)

^c TSINGHUA UNIVERSITY   (China)

^d SAN JOSE STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Aging; Exercise; Functionality; Neural mechanisms; Overweight; Well being

Indexed keywords

TRIACYLGLYCEROL;

ABDOMINAL OBESITY; AEROBIC EXERCISE; AGING; ANAEROBIC EXERCISE; ANTERIOR CINGULATE; BODY MASS; BRAIN BLOOD FLOW; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; COGNITION; COGNITIVE DEFECT; COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT; DEGENERATIVE DISEASE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; EXECUTIVE FUNCTION; EXERCISE; FRONTAL LOBE; HUMAN; INFORMATION PROCESSING; INSULIN RESISTANCE; LEAN BODY WEIGHT; MEMORY; MENTAL CAPACITY; MOTOR PERFORMANCE; MULTIINFARCT DEMENTIA; NERVE CELL PLASTICITY; OBESITY; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PHYSICAL CAPACITY; REVIEW; TRIACYLGLYCEROL BLOOD LEVEL; WAIST CIRCUMFERENCE; WELLBEING;

EID: 84895780438     PISSN: None     EISSN: 16634365     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2013.00097     Document Type: Review

References (118)

1. Ahlskog, J. E., Geda, Y. E., Graff-Radford, N. R., and Petersen, R. C. (2011). Physical exercise as a preventive or disease-modifying treatment of dementia and brain aging. Mayo Clin. Proc. 86, 876-884. doi: 10.4065/mcp.2011.0252.
2. Albinet, C. T., Boucard, G., Bouquet, C. A., and Audiffren, M. (2010). Increased heart rate variability and executive performance after aerobic training in the elderly. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 109, 617-624. doi:10.1007/s00421-010-1393-y.
3. Anderson-Hanley, C., Nimon, J. P., and Westen, S. C. (2010). Cognitive health benefits of strengthening exercise for community-dwelling older adults. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol. 32, 996-1001. doi:10.1080/13803391003662702.
4. Archer, T. (2011). Physical exercise alleviates debilities of normal aging and Alzheimer's disease. Acta Neurol. Scand. 123, 221-238. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0404.2010.01412.x.
5. Banks, W. A., Coon, A. B., Robinson, S. M., Moinuddin, A., Shultz, J. M., Nakaoke, R., et al. (2004). Triglycerides induce leptin resistance at the blood-brain barrier. Diabetes 53, 1253-1260. doi:10.2337/diabetes.53.5.1253.
6. Battaglia, G. M., Zheng, D., Hickner, R. C., and Houmard, J. A. (2012). Effect of exercise training on metabolic flexibility in response to a high-fat diet in obese individuals. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 303, E1440-E1445. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00355.2012.
7. Benedict, C., Brooks, S. J., Kullberg, J., Nordenskjöld, R., Burgos, J., Le Grevès, M., et al. (2013). Association between physical activity and brain health in older adults. Neurobiol. Aging 34, 83-90. doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2012.04.013.
8. Benito-León, J., Mitchell, A. J., Hernández-Gallego, J., and Bermejo-Pareja, F. (2013). Obesity and impaired cognitive functioning in the elderly: a population-based cross-sectional study (NEDICES). Eur. J. Neurol. 20, 899-906. doi:10.1111/ene.12083.
9. Bowen, M. E. (2012). A prospective examination of the relationship between physical activity and dementia risk in later life. Am. J. Health Promot. 26, 333-340. doi:10.4278/ajhp.110311-QUAN-115.
10. Bruce-Keller, A. J., Keller, J. N., and Morrison, C. D. (2009). Obesity and vulnerability of the CNS. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1792, 395-400. doi:10.1016/j.bbadis.2008.10.004.
11. Bugg, J. M., Shah, K., Villareal, D. T., and Head, D. (2012). Cognitive and neural correlates of aerobic fitness in obese older adults. Exp. Aging Res. 38, 131-145. doi:10.1080/0361073X.2012.659995.
12. Burdette, J. H., Laurienti, P. J., Espeland, M. A., Morgan, A., Telesford, Q., Vechlekar, C. D., et al. (2010). Using network science to evaluate exercise-associated brain changes in older adults. Front. Aging Neurosci. 2:23. doi:10.3389/fnagi.2010.00023.
13. Caspersen, C. J., Powell, K. E., and Christenson, G. M. (1985). Physical activity, exercise, and physical fitness: definitions and distinctions for health-related research. Public Health Rep. 100, 126.
14. Cassilhas, R. C., Viana, V. A., Grassmann, V., Santos, R. T., Santos, R. F., Tufik, S., et al. (2007). The impact of resistance exercise on the cognitive function of the elderly. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 39, 1401-1407. doi:10.1249/mss.0b013e318060111f.
15. Chaldakov, G. N., Stankulov, I. S., Hristova, M., and Ghenev, P. I. (2003). Adipobiology of disease: adipokines and adipokine-targeted pharmacology. Curr. Pharm. Des. 9, 1023-1031. doi:10.2174/1381612033455152.
16. Chau, D., Cho, L. M., Jani, P., and Jeor, S. T. (2008). Individualizing recommendations for weight management in the elderly. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care. 11, 27-31. doi:10.1097/MCO.0b013e3282f31744.
17. Colcombe, S. J., Erickson, K. I., Scalf, P. E., Kim, J. S., Prakash, R., McAuley, E., et al. (2006). Aerobic exercise training increases brain volume in aging humans. J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. 61, 1166-1170. doi:10.1093/gerona/61.11.1166.
18. Cowell, P. E., Turetsky, B. I., Gur, R. C., Grossman, R. I., Shtasel, D., and Gur, R. E. (1994). Sex differences in aging of the human frontal and temporal lobes. J. Neurosci. 14, 4748-4755.
19. Craft, S. (2005). Insulin resistance syndrome and Alzheimer's disease: age-and obesity-related effects on memory, amyloid, and inflammation. Neurobiol. Aging 26, 65-69. doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2005.08.021.
20. Dahl, A., Hassing, L. B., Fransson, E., Berg, S., Gatz, M., Reynolds, C. A., et al. (2010). Being overweight in midlife is associated with lower cognitive ability and steeper cognitive decline in late life. J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. 65, 57-62. doi:10.1093/gerona/glp035.
21. Dahl, A. K., and Hassing, L. B. (2013). Obesity and cognitive aging. Epidemiol. Rev. 35, 22-32. doi:10.1093/epirev/mxs002.
22. Dahl, A. K., Hassing, L. B., Fransson, E. I., Gatz, M., Reynolds, C. A., and Pedersen, N. L. (2013). Body mass index across midlife and cognitive changes in late life. Int. J. Obes. 37, 296-302. doi:10.1038/ijo.2012.37.
23. Debette, S., Seshadri, S., Beiser, A., Au, R., Himali, J. J., Palumbo, C., et al. (2011). Midlife vascular risk factor exposure accelerates structural brain aging and cognitive decline. Neurology 77, 746-768. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e318227b227.
24. Debling, D., Amelang, M., Hasselbach, P., and Stürmer, T. (2006). Diabetes and cognitive function in a population-based study of elderly women and men. J. Diabetes Complicat. 20, 238-245. doi:10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2005.06.016.
25. DeCaria, J. E., Sharp, C., and Petrella, R. J. (2012). Scoping review report: obesity in older adults. Int. J. Obes. 36, 1141-1150. doi:10.1038/ijo.2012.29.
26. Diano, S., and Horvath, T. L. (2008). Anticonvulsant effects of leptin in epilepsy. J. Clin. Invest. 118, 26-28. doi:10.1172/JCI34511.
27. Dishman, R. K., Berthoud, H. R., Booth, F. W., Cotman, C. W., Edgerton, V. R., Fleshner, M. R., et al. (2006). Neurobiology of exercise. Obesity 14, 345-356. doi:10.1038/oby.2006.46.
28. Eggermont, L. H., Milberg, W. P., Lipsitz, L. A., Scherder, E. J., and Leveille, S. G. (2009). Physical activity and executive function in aging: the MOBILIZE Boston Study. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 57, 1750-1756. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2009.02441.x.
29. Elias, M. E., Elias, P. K., Sullivan, L. M., Wolf, P. A., and D'Agostino, R. B. (2005). Obesity, diabetes, and cognitive deficit: the Framingham Heart Study. Neurobiol. Aging 26, S11-S16. doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2005.08.019.
30. Elias, M. F., Goodell, A. L., and Waldstein, S. R. (2012). Obesity, cognitive functioning and dementia: back to the future. J. Alzheimers Dis. 30(Suppl. 2), S113-S125. doi:10.3233/JAD-2011-111175.
31. Erickson, K. I., Prakash, R. S., Voss, M. W., Chaddock, L., Hu, L., Morris, K. S., et al. (2009). Aerobic fitness is associated with hippocampal volume in elderly humans. Hippocampus 19, 1030-1039. doi:10.1002/hipo.20547.
32. Erickson, K. I., Voss, M. W., Prakash, R. S., Basak, C., Szabo, A., Chaddock, L., et al. (2011). Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci U.S.A. 108, 3017-3022. doi:10.1073/pnas.1015950108.
33. Eskes, G. A., Longman, S., Brown, A. D., McMorris, C. A., Langdon, K. D., Hogan, D. B., et al. (2010). Contribution of physical fitness, cerebrovascular reserve and cognitive stimulation to cognitive function in post-menopausal women. Front. Aging Neurosci. 2:137. doi:10.3389/fnagi.2010.00137.
34. Figueroa, A., Vicil, F., Sanchez-Gonzalez, M. A., Wong, A., Ormsbee, M. J., Hooshmand, S., et al. (2013). Effects of diet and/or low-intensity resistance exercise training on arterial stiffness, adiposity, and lean mass in obese postmenopausal women. Am. J. Hypertens. 26, 416-423. doi:10.1093/ajh/hps050.
35. Flegal, K. M., Carroll, M. D., Kuczmarski, R. J., and Johnson, C. L. (1998). Overweight and obesity in the United States: prevalence and trends, 1960-1994. Int. J. Obes. 22, 39-47. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0800541.
36. Flöel, A., Ruscheweyh, R., Krüger, K., Willemer, C., Winter, B., Völker, K., et al. (2010). Physical activity and memory functions: are neurotrophins and cerebral gray matter volume the missing link? Neuroimage 49, 2756-2763. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.10.043.
37. Foster-Schubert, K. E., Alfano, C. M., Duggan, C. R., Xiao, L., Campbell, K. L., Kong, A., et al. (2012). Effect of diet and exercise, alone or combined, on weight and body composition in overweight to obese postmenopausal women. Obesity 20, 1628-1638. doi:10.1038/oby.2011.76.
38. Frimel, T. N., Sinacore, D. R., and Villareal, D. T. (2008). Exercise attenuates the weight-loss-induced reduction in muscle mass in frail obese older adults. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 40, 1213-1219. doi:10.1249/MSS.0b013e31816a85ce.
39. Gazdzinski, S., Kornak, J., Weiner, M. W., Meyerhoff, D. J., and Nat, D. R. (2008). Body mass index and magnetic resonance markers of brain integrity in adults. Ann. Neurol. 63, 652-657. doi:10.1002/ana.21377.
40. Gow, A. J., Bastin, M. E., Maniega, S. M., Hernández, M. C. V., Morris, Z., Murray, C., et al. (2012). Neuroprotective lifestyles and the aging brain: activity, atrophy, and white matter integrity. Neurology 79, 1802-1808. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182703fd2.
41. Graff-Radford, N. R. (2011). Can aerobic exercise protect against dementia? Alzheimers Res. Ther. 3, 6. doi:10.1186/alzrt65.
42. Greenwood, C. E., and Winocur, G. (2005). High-fat diets, insulin resistance and declining cognitive function. Neurobiol. Aging 26, 42-45. doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2005.08.017.
43. Gunstad, J., Lhotsky, A., Wendell, C. R., Ferrucci, L., and Zonderman, A. B. (2010). Longitudinal examination of obesity and cognitive function: results from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. Neuroepidemiology 34, 222-229. doi:10.1159/000297742.
44. Hamer, M., Venuraju, S. M., Urbanova, L., Lahiri, A., and Steptoe, A. (2012). Physical activity, sedentary time, and pericardial fat in healthy older adults. Obesity 20, 2113-2117. doi:10.1038/oby.2012.61.
45. Hassing, L. B., Dahl, A. K., Pedersen, N. L., and Johansson, B. (2010). Overweight in midlife is related to lower cognitive function 30 years later: a prospective study with longitudinal assessments. Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord. 29, 543-552. doi:10.1159/000314874.
46. Heyn, P. C., Johnsons, K. E., and Kramer, A. F. (2008). Endurance and strength training outcomes on cognitively impaired and cognitively intact older adults: a meta-analysis. J. Nutr. Health Aging 12, 401-409. doi:10.1007/BF02982674.
47. Ho, A. J., Raji, C. A., Becker, J. T., Lopez, O. L., Kuller, L. H., Hua, X., et al. (2010). Obesity is linked with lower brain volume in 700 AD and MCI patients. Neurobiol. Aging 31, 1326-1339. doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2010.04.006.
48. Howel, D. (2012). Waist circumference and abdominal obesity among older adults: patterns, prevalence and trends. PLoS ONE 7:e48528. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0048528.
49. Isaac, V., Sim, S., Zheng, H., Zagorodnov, V., Tai, E. S., and Chee, M. (2011). Adverse associations between visceral adiposity, brain structure, and cognitive performance in healthy elderly. Front. Aging Neurosci. 3:12. doi:10.3389/fnagi.2011.00012.
50. Jackson, A. S., Janssen, I., Sui, X., Church, T. S., and Blair, S. N. (2012). Longitudinal changes in body composition associated with healthy ageing: men, aged 20-96 years. Br. J. Nutr. 107, 1085-1091. doi:10.1017/S0007114511003886.
51. Jagust, W., Harvey, D., Mungas, D., and Haan, M. (2005). Central obesity and the aging brain. Arch. Neurol. 62, 1545-1548. doi:10.1001/archneur.62.10.1545.
52. Jedrziewski, M. K., Ewbank, D. C., Wang, H., and Trojanowski, J. Q. (2010). Exercise and cognition: results from the National Long Term Care Survey. Alzheimers Dement. 6, 448-455. doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2010.02.004.
53. Jenkins, K. R., and Fultz, N. H. (2008). The relationship of older adults' activities and body mass index. J. Aging Health 20, 217-234. doi:10.1177/0898264307310466.
54. Jeong, S. K., Nam, H. S., Son, M. H., Son, E. J., and Cho, K. H. (2005). Interactive effect of obesity indexes on cognition. Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord. 19, 91-96. doi:10.1159/000082659.
55. Kershaw, E. E., and Flier, J. S. (2004). Adipose tissue as an endocrine organ. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 89, 2548-2556. doi:10.1210/jc.2004-0395.
56. Kerwin, D. R., Zhang, Y., Kotchen, J. M., Espeland, M. A., Van Horn, L., McTigue, K. M., et al. (2010). The cross-sectional relationship between body mass index, waist-hip ratio, and cognitive performance in postmenopausal women enrolled in the Women's Health Initiative. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 58, 1427-1432. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2010.02969.x.
57. Knopman, D. S., and Roberts, R. (2010). Vascular risk factors: imaging and neuropathologic correlates. J. Alzheimers Dis. 20, 699-709. doi:10.3233/JAD-2010-091555.
58. Kramer, A. F., Colcombe, S. J., McAuley, E., Scalf, P. E., and Erickson, K. I. (2005). Fitness, aging and neurocognitive function. Neurobiol. Aging 26, 124-127. doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2005.09.009.
59. Kramer, A. F., and Erickson, K. I. (2007). Capitalizing on cortical plasticity: influence of physical activity on cognition and brain function. Trends Cogn. Sci. 11, 342-348. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2007.06.009.
60. Lachman, M. E., Neupert, S. D., Bertrand, R., and Jette, A. M. (2006). The effects of strength training on memory in older adults. J. Aging Phys. Act. 14, 59-73.
61. Lam, L. C. W., Chau, R. C. M., Wong, B. M. L., Fung, A. W. T., Lui, V. W. C., Tam, C. C. W., et al. (2011). Interim follow-up of a randomized controlled trial comparing Chinese style mind body (Tai Chi) and stretching exercises on cognitive function in subjects at risk of progressive cognitive decline. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 26, 733-740. doi:10.1002/gps.2602.
62. Landin, K., Stigendal, L., Eriksson, E., Krotkiewski, M., Risberg, B., Tengborn, L., et al. (1990). Abdominal obesity is associated with an impaired fibrinolytic activity and elevated plasminogen activator inhibitor-1. Metab. Clin. Exp. 39, 1044-1048. doi:10.1016/0026-0495(90)90164-8.
63. Langlois, F., Vu, T. T. M., Chassé, K., Dupuis, G., Kergoat, M. J., and Bherer, L. (2013). Benefits of physical exercise training on cognition and quality of life in frail older adults. J. Gerontol. B Psychol. Sci. Soc. Sci. 68, 400-404. doi:10.1093/geronb/gbs069.
64. Laurin, D., Verreault, R., Lindsay, J., MacPherson, K., and Rockwood, K. (2001). Physical activity and risk of cognitive impairment and dementia in elderly persons. Arch. Neurol. 58, 498-504. doi:10.1001/archneur.58.3.498.
65. Lee, Y., Back, J. H., Kim, J., Kim, S. H., Na, D. L., Cheong, H. K., et al. (2010). Systematic review of health behavioral risks and cognitive health in older adults. Int. Psychogeriatr. 22, 174-187. doi:10.1017/S1041610209991189.
66. Luchsinger, J. A., and Gustafson, D. R. (2009). Adiposity, type 2 diabetes, and Alzheimer's disease. J. Alzheimers Dis. 16, 693-704. doi:10.3233/JAD-2009-1022.
67. Maki, Y., Ura, C., Yamaguchi, T., Murai, T., Isahai, M., Kaiho, A., et al. (2012). Effects of intervention using a community-based walking program for prevention of mental decline: a randomized controlled trial. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 60, 505-510. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2011.03838.x.
68. Manini, T. M., Newman, A. B., Fielding, R., Blair, S. N., Perri, M. G., Anton, S. D., et al. (2009). Effects of exercise on mobility in obese and nonobese older adults. Obesity 18, 1168-1175. doi:10.1038/oby.2009.317.
69. Marks, B. L., Katz, L. M., Styner, M., and Smith, J. K. (2011). Aerobic fitness and obesity: relationship to cerebral white matter integrity in the brain of active and sedentary older adults. Br. J. Sports Med. 45, 1208-1215. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2009.068114.
70. Marks, B. L., Madden, D. J., Bucur, B., Provenzale, J. M., White, L. E., Cabeza, R., et al. (2007). Role of aerobic fitness and aging on cerebral white matter integrity. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1097, 171-174. doi:10.1196/annals.1379.022.
71. Mobbs, O., Iglesias, K., Golay, A., and van der Linden, M. (2011). Cognitive deficits in obese persons with and without binge eating disorder. Investigation using a mental flexibility task. Appetite 57, 263-271. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2011.04.023.
72. Mokdad, A. H., Bowman, B. A., Ford, E. S., Vinicor, F., Marks, J. S., and Koplan, J. P. (2001). The continuing epidemics of obesity and diabetes in the United States. JAMA 286, 1195-1200. doi:10.1001/jama.286.10.1195.
73. Mortimer, J. A., Ding, D., Borenstein, A. R., DeCarli, C., Guo, Q., Wu, Y., et al. (2012). Changes in brain volume and cognition in a randomized trial of exercise and social interaction in a community-based sample of non-demented Chinese elders. J. Alzheimers Dis. 30, 757-766. doi:10.3233/JAD-2012-120079.
74. Nelson, M. E., Rejeski, W. J., Blair, S. N., Duncan, P. W., Judge, J. O., King, A. C., et al. (2007). Physical activity and public health in older adults: recommendation from the American College of Sports Medicine and the American Heart Association. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 39, 1435-1445. doi:10.1249/mss.0b013e3180616aa2.
75. Nicklas, B. J., Wang, X., You, T., Lyles, M. F., Demons, J., Easter, L., et al. (2009). Effect of exercise intensity on abdominal fat loss during calorie restriction in overweight and obese postmenopausal women: a randomized, controlled trial. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 89, 1043-1052. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2008.26938.
76. Nilsson, L. G., and Nilsson, E. (2009). Overweight and cognition. Scand. J. Psychol. 50, 660-667. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2009.00777.x.
77. Oken, B. S., Zajdel, D., Kishiyama, S., Flegal, K., Dehen, C., Haas, M., et al. (2006). Randomized, controlled, six-month trial of yoga in healthy seniors: effects on cognition and quality of life. Altern. Ther. Health Med. 12, 40-47.
78. Pinteaux, E., Inoue, W., Schmidt, L., Molina Holgado, F., Rothwell, N. J., and Luheshi, G. N. (2007). Leptin induces interleukin 1β release from rat microglial cells through a caspase 1 independent mechanism. J. Neurochem. 102, 826-833. doi:10.1111/j.1471-4159.2007.04559.x.
79. Raji, C. A., Ho, A. J., Parikshak, N. N., Becker, J. T., Lopez, O. L., Kuller, L. H., et al. (2010). Brain structure and obesity. Hum. Brain Mapp. 31, 353-364. doi:10.1002/hbm.20870.
80. Ravaglia, G., Forti, P., Lucicesare, A., Pisacane, N., Rietti, E., Bianchin, M., et al. (2008). Physical activity and dementia risk in the elderly: findings from a prospective Italian study. Neurology 70, 1786-1794. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000296276.50595.86.
81. Rogers, R. L., Meyer, J. S., McClintic, K., and Mortel, K. F. (1989). Reducing hypertriglyceridemia in elderly patients with cerebrovascular disease stabilizes or improves cognition and cerebral perfusion. Angiology 40, 260-269. doi:10.1177/000331978904000404.
82. Rosano, C., Venkatraman, V. K., Guralnik, J., Newman, A. B., Glynn, N. W., Launer, L., et al. (2010). Psychomotor speed and functional brain MRI 2 years after completing a physical activity treatment. J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. 65, 639-647. doi:10.1093/gerona/glq038.
83. Rössner, S. (2001). Obesity in the elderly-a future matter of concern? Obes. Rev. 2, 183-188. doi:10.1046/j.1467-789x.2001.00034.x.
84. Ruscheweyh, R., Willemer, C., Krüger, K., Duning, T., Warnecke, T., Sommer, J., et al. (2011). Physical activity and memory functions: an interventional study. Neurobiol. Aging 32, 1304-1319. doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2009.08.001.
85. Ryan, C. M., and Geckle, M. (2000). Why is learning and memory dysfunction in type 2 diabetes limited to older adults? Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev. 16, 308-315. doi:10.1002/1520-7560(2000)9999:9999<::AID-DMRR141>3.0.CO;2-X.
86. Sabia, S., Kivimaki, M., Shipley, M. J., Marmot, M. G., and Singh-Manoux, A. (2009). Body mass index over the adult life course and cognition in late midlife: the Whitehall II Cohort Study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 89, 601-607. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2008.26482.
87. Salthouse, T. A. (2004). What and when of cognitive aging. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 13, 140-144. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00293.x.
88. Sellbom, K. S., and Gunstad, J. (2012). Cognitive function and decline in obesity. J. Alzheimers Dis. 30(Suppl. 2), S89-S95. doi:10.3233/JAD-2011-111073.
89. Shiroma, E. J., Sesso, H. D., and Lee, I. M. (2012). Physical activity and weight gain prevention in older men. Int. J. Obes. 36, 1165-1169. doi:10.1038/ijo.2011.266.
90. Smith, E., Hay, P., Campbell, L., and Trollor, J. N. (2011). A review of the association between obesity and cognitive function across the lifespan: implications for novel approaches to prevention and treatment. Obes. Rev. 12, 740-755.
91. Sofi, F., Valecchi, D., Bacci, D., Abbate, R., Gensini, G. F., Casini, A., et al. (2011). Physical activity and risk of cognitive decline: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. J. Intern. Med. 269, 107-117. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2796.2010.02281.x.
92. Stehr, M. D., and von Lengerke, T. (2012). Preventing weight gain through exercise and physical activity in the elderly: a systematic review. Maturitas 72, 13-22. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2012.01.022.
93. Stevens, G. A., Singh, G. M., Lu, Y., Danaei, G., Lin, J. K., Finucane, M. M., et al. (2012). National, regional, and global trends in adult overweight and obesity prevalence. Popul. Health Metr. 10, 22. doi:10.1186/1478-7954-10-22.
94. Stewart, K. J., Bacher, A. C., Turner, K., Lim, J. G., Hees, P. S., Shapiro, E. P., et al. (2005). Exercise and risk factors associated with metabolic syndrome in older adults. Am. J. Prev. Med. 28, 9-18. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2004.09.006.
95. Taki, Y., Kinomura, S., Sato, K., Inoue, K., Goto, R., Okada, K., et al. (2008). Relationship between body mass index and gray matter volume in 1,428 healthy individuals. Obesity 16, 119-124. doi:10.1038/oby.2007.4.
96. Tang, C. H., Lu, D. Y., Yang, R. S., Tsai, H. Y., Kao, M. C., Fu, W. M., et al. (2007). Leptin-induced IL-6 production is mediated by leptin receptor, insulin receptor substrate-1, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, Akt, NF-κB, and p300 pathway in microglia. J. Immunol. 179, 1292-1302.
97. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2012). Health, United States, 2012. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hus/hus12.pdf.
98. van den Berg, E., Kloppenborg, R. P., Kessels, R. P., Kappelle, L. J., and Biessels, G. J. (2009). Type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension, dyslipidemia and obesity: a systematic comparison of their impact on cognition. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1792, 470-481. doi:10.1016/j.bbadis.2008.09.004.
99. Vaynman, S., and Gomez-Pinilla, F. (2005). License to run: exercise impacts functional plasticity in the intact and injured central nervous system by using neurotrophins. Neurorehabil. Neural Repair 19, 283-295. doi:10.1177/1545968305280753.
100. Villareal, D. T., Apovian, C. M., Kushner, R. F., and Klein, S. (2005). Obesity in older adults: technical review and position statement of the American Society for Nutrition and NAASO, the Obesity Society. Obes. Res. 13, 1849-1863. doi:10.1038/oby.2005.228.
101. Vincent, H. K., Raiser, S. N., and Vincent, K. R. (2012). The aging musculoskeletal system and obesity-related considerations with exercise. Ageing Res. Rev. 11, 361-373. doi:10.1016/j.arr.2012.03.002.
102. Voelcker-Rehage, C., Godde, B., and Staudinger, U. M. (2011). Cardiovascular and coordination training differentially improve cognitive performance and neural processing in older adults. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 5:26. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2011.00026.
103. Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., Telang, F., Fowler, J. S., Goldstein, R. Z., Alia-Klein, N., et al. (2008). Inverse association between BMI and prefrontal metabolic activity in healthy adults. Obesity 17, 60-65. doi:10.1038/oby.2008.469.
104. Voss, M. W., Nagamatsu, L. S., Liu-Ambrose, T., and Kramer, A. F. (2011). Exercise, brain, and cognition across the life span. J. Appl. Physiol. 111, 1505-1513. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00210.2011.
105. Voss, M. W., Prakash, R. S., Erickson, K. I., Basak, C., Chaddock, L., Kim, J. S., et al. (2010). Plasticity of brain networks in a randomized intervention trial of exercise training in older adults. Front. Aging Neurosci. 2:32. doi:10.3389/fnagi.2010.00032.
106. Waldstein, S. R., and Katzel, L. I. (2005). Interactive relations of central versus total obesity and blood pressure to cognitive function. Int. J. Obes. 30, 201-207. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803114.
107. Walther, K., Birdsill, A. C., Glisky, E. L., and Ryan, L. (2010). Structural brain differences and cognitive functioning related to body mass index in older females. Hum. Brain Mapp. 31, 1052-1064. doi:10.1002/hbm.20916.
108. Ward, M. A., Carlsson, C. M., Trivedi, M. A., Sager, M. A., and Johnson, S. C. (2005). The effect of body mass index on global brain volume in middle-aged adults: a cross sectional study. BMC Neurol. 5:23. doi:10.1186/1471-2377-5-23.
109. Watson, G. S., and Craft, S. (2003). The role of insulin resistance in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. CNS Drugs 17, 27-45. doi:10.2165/00023210-200317010-00003.
110. Watson, G. S., Reger, M. A., Baker, L. D., McNeely, M. J., Fujimoto, W. Y., Kahn, S. E., et al. (2006). Effects of exercise and nutrition on memory in Japanese Americans with impaired glucose tolerance. Diabetes Care 29, 135-136. doi:10.2337/diacare.29.01.06.dc05-1889.
111. Weuve, J., Kang, J. H., Manson, J. E., Breteler, M. M., Ware, J. H., and Grodstein, F. (2004). Physical activity, including walking, and cognitive function in older women. JAMA 292, 1454-1461. doi:10.1001/jama.292.12.1454.
112. Wilbur, J., Marquez, D. X., Fogg, L., Wilson, R. S., Staffileno, B. A., Hoyem, R. L., et al. (2012). The relationship between physical activity and cognition in older Latinos. J. Gerontol. B Psychol. Sci. Soc. Sci. 67, 525-534. doi:10.1093/geronb/gbr137.
113. Willis, L. H., Slentz, C. A., Bateman, L. A., Shields, A. T., Piner, L. W., Bales, C. W., et al. (2012). Effects of aerobic and/or resistance training on body mass and fat mass in overweight or obese adults. J. Appl. Physiol. 113, 1831-1837. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.01370.2011.
114. Woo, J., Yu, R., and Yau, F. (2013). Fitness, fatness and survival in elderly populations. Age 35, 973-984. doi:10.1007/s11357-012-9398-6.
115. World Health Organization. (2013). Obesity and overweight. Available from: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en.
116. Xue, Q. L., Bandeen-Roche, K., Mielenz, T. J., Seplaki, C. L., Szanton, S. L., Thorpe, R. J., et al. (2012). Patterns of 12-year change in physical activity levels in community-dwelling older women: can modest levels of physical activity help older women live longer? Am. J. Epidemiol. 176, 534-543. doi:10.1093/aje/kws125.
117. Yaffe, K., Lindquist, K., Penninx, B. W., Simonsick, E. M., Pahor, M., Kritchevsky, S., et al. (2003). Inflammatory markers and cognition in well-functioning African-American and white elders. Neurology 61, 76-80. doi:10.1212/01.WNL.0000073620.42047.D7.
118. Yoon, D. H., Choi, S. H., Yu, J. H., Ha, J. H., Ryu, S. H., and Park, D. H. (2012). The relationship between visceral adiposity and cognitive performance in older adults. Age Ageing 41, 456-461. doi:10.1093/ageing/afs018.