Carry that weight: Coastal foraging and transport of marine resources during the south african middle stone age

Southern African Humanities

Volumn 25, Issue , 2013, Pages 105-135

  Dusseldorp, G L ^a   Langejans, G H J ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG   (South Africa)

^b LEIDEN UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Blombos Cave; Cape fur seal; Coastal foraging; Klasies River; Late Pleistocene; Middle Stone Age; Optimal foraging; Resource transport; Sea level change; Shellfish exploitation; South Africa; Subsistence behaviour

Indexed keywords

EID: 84894751102     PISSN: 16815564     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (145)

1. Ambrose, S.H. & Lorenz, K.G. 1990. Social and ecological models for the Middle Stone Age in Southern Africa. In: P. Mellars, ed., The emergence of modern humans. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, pp. 3-33.
2. Avery, G., Cruz-Uribe, H., Goldberg, P., Grine, F.E., Klein, R.G., Lenardi, M.J., Marean, C.W., Rink, J., Schwarcz, H.P., Thackeray, A.I. & Wilson, M.L. 1997. The 1992-1993 excavations at the Die Kelders Middle and Later Stone Age cave site, South Africa. Journal of Field Archaeology 24: 263-91.
3. Avery, G., Halkett, D., Orton, J., Steele, T., Tusenius, M. & Klein, R. 2008. The Ysterfontein 1 Middle Stone Age rock shelter and the evolution of coastal foraging. South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series 10: 66-89.
4. Bar-Matthews, M., Marean, C.W., Jacobs, Z., Karkanas, P., Fisher, E.C., Herries, A.I.R., Brown, K., Williams, H.M., Bernatchez, J., Ayalon, A. & Nilssen, P.J. 2010. A high resolution and continuous isotopic speleothem record of paleoclimate and paleoenvironment from 90 to 53 ka from Pinnacle Point on the south coast of South Africa. Quaternary Science Reviews 29: 2131-45.
5. Berry, P.F. 1978. Reproduction, growth and production in the mussel Perna perna (Linnaeus), on the east coast of South Africa. South African Association for Marine Biological Research 48: 1-28.
6. Bettinger, R.L. 1991. Hunter-gatherers: archaeological and evolutionary theory. New York/London: Plenum Press.
7. Bettinger, R.L., Malhi, R. & McCarthy, H. 1997. Central place models of acorn and mussel processing. Journal of Archaeological Science 24: 887-99.
8. Biesele, M. & Barclay, S. 2001. Ju|'Hoan women's tracking knowledge and its contribution to their husbands' hunting success. African Study Monographs Supplementary 26: 67-84.
9. Binford, L.R. 1978. Nunamiut ethnoarchaeology. New York: Academic Press.
10. Binford, L.R. 1980. Willow smoke and dogs' tails: hunter-gatherer settlement systems and archaeological site formation. American Antiquity 45: 4-20.
11. Binford, L.R. 1982. The archaeology of place. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 1: 5-31.
12. Binford, L.R. 1986. Reply to Singer and Wymer. Current Anthropology 27: 57-62.
13. Bird, D.W. & Bird, R.B.L. 1997. Contemporary shellfish gathering strategies among the Meriam of the Torres Strait Islands, Australia: testing predictions of a Central Place Foraging Model. Journal of Archaeological Science 24: 39-63.
14. Birkett, D.A. & Cook, P. 1987. Effect of the Benguela temperature anomaly, 1982-1983, on the breeding cycle of Donax serra Röding. South African Journal of Marine Science 5: 191-6.
15. Brain, C.K. 1981. The hunters or the hunted? An introduction to African cave taphonomy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
16. Bright, J., Ugan, A. & Hunsaker, L. 2002. The effect of handling time on subsistence technology. World Archaeology 34: 164-81.
17. Brink, J.S. & Deacon, H.J. 1982. A study of the last interglacial shell midden and bone accumulation at Herolds Bay, Cape Province, South Africa. Palaeoecology of Africa and the Surrounding Islands 15: 31-9.
18. Broadhurst, C.L., Wang, Y., Crawford, M.A., Cunnane, S.C., Parkington, J.E. & Schmidt, W.F. 2002. Brain-specific lipids from marine, lacustrine, or terrestrial food resources: potential impact on early African Homo sapiens. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part B: Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 131: 653-73.
19. Brower-Stahl, A. 1984. Hominid dietary selection before fire. Current Anthropology 25: 151-68.
20. Buchanan, W.F. 1988. Shellfish in prehistoric diet, Elands Bay, SW Cape coast, South Africa. Oxford: BAR International Series.
21. Bunn, H.T., Bartram, L.E. & Kroll, E.M. 1988. Variability in bone assemblage formation from Hadza hunting, scavenging and carcass processing. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 7: 412-57.
22. Carmody, R.N., Weintraub, G.S. & Wrangham, R.W. 2012. Energetic consequences of thermal and nonthermal food processing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108: 19199-203.
23. Carr, A.S., Thomas, D.S.G., Bateman, M.D., Meadows, M.E. & Chase, B. 2006. Late Quaternary palaeoenvironments of the winter-rainfall zone of southern Africa: Palynological and sedimentological evidence from the Agulhas Plain. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 239: 147-65.
24. Charnov, E.L. 1976. Optimal foraging: the marginal value theorem. Theoretical Population Biology 9: 126-36.
25. Chase, B.M. 2010. South African palaeoenvironments during marine oxygen isotope stage 4: A context for the Howiesons Poort and Still Bay industries. Journal of Archaeological Science 37: 1359-66.
26. Chase, B.M. & Meadows, M.E. 2007. Late Quaternary dynamics of southern Africa's winter rainfall zone. Earth-Science Reviews 84: 103-38.
27. Crawford, M.A., Bloom, M., Broadhurst, C.L., Schmidt, W.F., Cunnane, S.C., Galli, C., Gehbremeskel, K., Lineisen, F., Lloyd-Smith, J. & Parkington, J. 1999. Evidence for the unique function of Docosahexaenoic Acid during the evolution of the modern hominid brain. Lipids 34: s39-s47.
28. David, J. & Van Sittert, L. 2008. A reconstruction of the Cape (South African) fur seal harvest 1653-1899 and a comparison with the 20th century harvest. South African Journal of Science 104: 107-10.
29. De Villiers, D.J., Oosthuizen, W.H., Roux, J.-P. & Kotze, P.G.H. 1997. Population structure of a nonbreeding colony of the Cape fur seal Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus at Cape Frio, Namibia. South African Journal of Marine Science 18: 295-8.
30. Deacon, H.J. 1989. Late Pleistocene palaeoecology and archaeology in the southern Cape, South Africa. In: P. Mellars & C. Stringer, eds., The human revolution: behavioural and biological perspectives on the origins of modern humans. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, pp. 546-64.
31. Deacon, H.J. 1993. Planting an idea: an archaeology of Stone Age gatherers in South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin 48: 86-93.
32. Deacon, H.J. & Geleijnse, V.B. 1988. The stratigraphy and sedimentology of the main site sequence, Klasies River, South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin 43: 5-14.
33. Dusseldorp, G.L. 2010. Prey choice during the South African Middle Stone Age: avoiding dangerous prey or maximising returns. African Archaeological Review 27: 107-33.
34. Dusseldorp, G.L. 2012a. Tracking the influence of Middle Stone Age technological change on modern human hunting strategies. Quaternary International 270: 70-9.
35. Dusseldorp, G.L. 2012b. Studying prehistoric hunting proficiency: applying Optimal Foraging Theory to the Middle Palaeolithic and Middle Stone Age. Quaternary International 252: 3-15.
36. Elliott, P.F. 1988: Foraging behaviour of a central place forager: field tests of theoretical predictions. American Naturalist 131: 159-74.
37. Faith, J.T. 2011. Ungulate community richness, grazer extinctions, and human subsistence behavior in southern Africa's Cape Floral Region. Paleogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 306: 219-27.
38. Faith, J.T., Dominguez-Rodrigo, M. & Gordon, A.D. 2009. Long-distance carcass transport at Olduvai Gorge? A quantitative examination of Bed I skeletal element abundances. Journal of Human Evolution 56: 247-56.
39. Faith, J.T. & Gordon, A.D. 2007. Skeletal element abundances in archaeofaunal assemblages: economic utility, sample size, and assessment of carcass transport strategies. Journal of Archaeological Science 34: 872-82.
40. Fisher, E.C., Bar-Matthews, M., Jerardino, A. & Marean, C.W. 2010. Middle and Late Pleistocene paleoscape modeling along the southern coast of South Africa. Quaternary Science Reviews 29: 1382-98.
41. Grimstead, D.N. 2010. Ethnographic and modeled costs of long-distance, big game hunting. American Antiquity 75: 61-80.
42. Guerin, G., Murray, A.S., Jain, M., Thomsen, K.J. & Mercier, N. 2013. How confident are we in the chronology of the transition between Howieson's Poort and Still Bay. Journal of Human Evolution 64: 314-17.
43. Guitierrez, M., Guérin, C., Léna, M. & Piedade da Jesus, M. 2001. Exploitation d'un grand cétacé au Paléolithique ancien: le site de Dungo V à Baia Farta (Benguela, Angola). Comptes rendus de L'Académie des Sciences, Paris: Sciences de la Terre et des Planètes 332: 357-62.
44. Hawkes, K., O'Connell, J.F., Jones, N.G.B., Oftedal, O.T. & Blumenschine, R.J. 1991. Hunting income patterns among the Hadza: big game, common goods, foraging goals and the evolution of the human diet. Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences 334: 243-51.
45. Henshilwood, C.S. 2008. Winds of change: palaeoenvironments, material culture and human behaviour in the Late Pleistocene (~77 ka-48 ka ago) in the Western Cape Province, South Africa. South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series 10: 35-51.
46. Henshilwood, C.S., d'Errico, F., Van Niekerk, K.L., Coquinot, Y., Jacobs, Z., Lauritzen, S.-E., Menu, M. & García-Moreno, R. 2011. 100,000-year-old ochre-processing workshop at Blombos Cave, South Africa. Science 334: 219-22.
47. Henshilwood, C.S., Sealy, J.C., Yates, R., Cruz-Uribe, K., Goldberg, P., Grine, F.E., Klein, R.G., Poggenpoel, C., Van Niekerk, K. & Watts, I. 2001. Blombos Cave, southern Cape, South Africa: preliminary report on the 1992-1999 excavations of the Middle Stone Age levels. Journal of Archaeological Science 28: 421-48.
48. Henshilwood, C.S. & Marean, C.W. 2003. The origin of modern human behaviour. Current Anthropology 44: 627-51.
49. Isaac, G.L.I. 1978. The food sharing behaviour of protohuman hominids. Scientific American 238: 99-108.
50. Jacobs, Z., Hayes, E.H., Roberts, R.G., Galbraith, R.F. & Henshilwood, C.S. 2013. An improved OSL chronology for the Still Bay layers at Blombos Cave, South Africa: further tests of single-grain dating procedures and a re-evaluation of the timing of the Still Bay industry across southern Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science 40: 579-94.
51. Jacobson, L. & Noli, D. 1987. An eye witness account of coastal settlement and subsistence along the northern Namibian coast. South African Archaeological Bulletin 42: 173-4.
52. Jerardino, A. 2012. Large shell middens and hunter-gatherer resource intensification along the West Coast of South Africa: the Elands Bay case study. Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology 7: 76-101.
53. Jerardino, A. & Marean, C.W. 2010. Shellfish gathering, marine paleoecology and modern human behavior: perspectives from cave PP13B, Pinnacle Point, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution 59: 412-24.
54. Johnson, S.D. 1993. Climatic and phylogenetic determinants of flowering seasonality in the Cape Flora. Journal of Ecology 81: 567-72.
55. Jones, E.L. 2004. Dietary evenness, prey choice and human-environment interactions. Journal of Archaeological Science 31: 307-17.
56. Jones, K.T. & Madsen, D.B. 1989. Calculating the cost of resource transportation: a Great Basin example. Current Anthropology 30: 529-34.
57. Jones, T.L. 1996. Mortars, pestles and division of labor in prehistoric California: a view from Big Sur. American Antiquity 61: 243-64.
58. Kandel, A.W. & Conard, N.J. 2003. Scavenging and processing of whale meat and blubber by Later Stone Age people of the Geelbek Dunes, Western Cape Province, South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin 58: 91-3.
59. Klein, R.G. 1976. The mammalian fauna of the Klasies River Mouth sites, southern Cape Province, South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin 31: 75-98.
60. Klein, R.G. 2000. Archaeology and the evolution of human behaviour. Evolutionary Anthropology 9: 17-36.
61. Klein, R.G. & Cruz-Uribe, K. 1996. Exploitation of large bovids and seals at Middle and Later Stone Age sites in South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution 31: 315-34.
62. Klein, R.G. & Cruz-Uribe, K. 2000. Middle and Later Stone Age large mammal and tortoise remains from Die Kelders Cave 1, Western Cape Province, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution 38: 169-95.
63. Klein, R.G., Cruz-Uribe, K. & Milo, R.G. 1999a. Skeletal part representation in archaeofaunas: comments on "Explaining the 'Klasies Pattern': Kua ethnoarchaeology, the Die Kelders Middle Stone Age archaeofauna, long bone fragmentation and carnivore ravaging" by Bartram & Marean. Journal of Archaeological Science 26: 1225-34.
64. Klein, R.G., Cruz-Uribe, K., Halkett, D. & Hart, T. 1999b. Paleoenvironmental and human behavioral implications of the Boegoeberg 1 Late Pleistocene hyena den, northern Cape Province, South Africa. Quaternary Research 52: 393-403.
65. Kuhn, S.L. & Stiner, M.C. 2006. What's a mother to do? The division of labor among Neanderthals and modern humans in Eurasia. Current Anthropology 47: 953-80.
66. Langejans, G.H.J., Dusseldorp, G.L. & Henshilwood, C.S. 2012a. Terrestrial gastropods from Blombos Cave, South Africa: research potential. South African Archaeological Bulletin 67: 120-3.
67. Langejans, G.H.J., Van Niekerk, K., Dusseldorp, G.L. & Thackeray, J.F. 2012b. Middle Stone Age shellfish exploitation: evidence for mass collecting at Blombos Cave and Klasies River, South Africa. Quaternary International 270: 80-94.
68. Langejans, G.H.J., Dusseldorp, G.L., Van Niekerk, K.L., Henshilwood, C.S. in press. A hazy shade of winter: Late Pleistocene environments and behavioural adaptations at Blombos Cave, South Africa. Palaeoecology of Africa.
69. Lasiak, T. 1987. The reproductive cycles of three Trochid gastropods from the Transkei coast, southern Africa. Journal of Molluscan Studies 53: 24-32.
70. Lasiak, T. 1991. The susceptibility and/or resilience of rocky littoral molluscs to stock depletion by the indigenous coastal people of Transkei, southern Africa. Biological Conservation 56: 245-64.
71. Li, D., Zhang, Y. & Sinclair, A. 2007. Seasonal variations of lipid content and composition in Perna viridis. Lipids 42: 739-47.
72. Lupo, K.D. 2006. What explains the carcass field processing and transport decisions of contemporary hunter-gatherers? Measures of economic anatomy and zooarchaeological skeletal part representation. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 13: 19-65.
73. Lyman, R.L., Savelle, J.M. & Whitridge, P. 1992. Derivation and application of a meat utility index for Phocid seals. Journal of Archaeological Science 19: 531-55.
74. Marean, C.W. 1986a. On the seal remains from Klasies River Mouth: an evaluation of Binford's interpretations. Current Anthropology 27: 365-8.
75. Marean, C.W. 1986b. Seasonality and seal exploitation in the southwestern Cape, South Africa. African Archaeological Review 4: 135-49.
76. Marean, C.W. 2010. Pinnacle Point Cave 13B (Western Cape Province, South Africa) in context: the Cape floral kingdom, shellfish, and modern human origins. Journal of Human Evolution 59: 425-43.
77. Marean, C.W. 2011. Coastal South Africa and the coevolution of the modern human lineage. In: N.F. Bicho, J.A. Haws & L.G. Davis, eds., Trekking the shore: changing coastlines and the antiquity of coastal settlement. New York: Springer.
78. Marean, C.W., Abe, Y., Frey, C.J. & Randall, R.C. 2000. Zooarchaeological and taphonomic analysis of the Die Kelders Cave 1 Layers 10 and 11 Middle Stone Age larger mammal fauna. Journal of Human Evolution 38: 197-233.
79. Marean, C.W. & Assefa, Z. 1999. Zooarcheological evidence for the faunal exploitation behavior of Neandertals and early modern humans. Evolutionary Anthropology 8: 22-37.
80. Marean, C.W., Bar-Matthews, M., Bernatchez, J., Fisher, E., Goldberg, P., Herries, A.I.R., Jacobs, Z., Jerardino, A., Karkanas, P., Minichillo, T., Nilssen, P.J., Thompson, E., Watts, I. & Williams, H.M. 2007. Early human use of marine resources and pigment in South Africa during the Middle Pleistocene. Nature 449: 905-8.
81. Marlowe, F.W. 2007. Hunting and gathering: the human sexual division of foraging labor. Cross-Cultural Research 41: 170-95.
82. Marshall, F. & Pilgram, T. 1993. NISP vs. MNI quantification in body-part representation. American Antiquity 58: 261-9.
83. Math Open Reference. Site accessed October 2013. http://www.mathopenref. com/segmentarea.html.
84. McCall, G.S. 2007. Behavioral ecological models of lithic technological change during the later Middle Stone Age of South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science 34: 1738-51.
85. McCall, G. & Thomas, J. 2012. Still Bay and Howiesons Poort foraging strategies: recent research and models of culture change. African Archaeological Review 29: 7-50.
86. Metcalfe, D. & Barlow, K.R. 1992. A model for exploring the optimal trade-off between field processing and transport. American Anthropologist 94: 340-56.
87. Mitchell, P.J. 1997. Holocene Later Stone Age hunter-gatherers south of the Limpopo River, ca. 10,000- 2000 B.P. Journal of World Prehistory 11: 359-24.
88. Monahan, C.M. 1998. The Hadza carcass transport debate revisited and its archaeological implications. Journal of Archaeological Science 25: 405-24.
89. Mourre, V., Villa, P. & Henshilwood, C.S. 2010. Early use of pressure flaking on lithic artifacts at Blombos Cave, South Africa. Science 330: 659-62.
90. Nagaoka, L. 2001. Using diversity indices to measure changes in prey choice at the Shag River Mouth site, southern New Zealand. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 11: 101-11.
91. Nagaoka, L. 2002. The effects of resource depression on foraging efficiency, diet breadth, and patch use in southern New Zealand. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 21: 419-42.
92. Nel, T.H. 2007. Middle Stone Age palaeoenvironments: a study of faunal material from Blombos Cave, southern Cape, South Africa. Nyame Akuma 68: 52-61.
93. Nel, T.H. 2013. Micromammals, climate change and human behaviour in the Middle Stone Age, southern Cape, South Africa. PhD thesis, University of Bergen.
94. O'Connell, J.F., Hawkes, K. & Blurton-Jones, N. 1988. Hadza hunting, butchering and bone transport and their archaeological implications. Journal of Anthropological Research 44: 113-61.
95. O'Connell, J.F., Hawkes, K. & Blurton Jones, N. 1990. Reanalysis of large mammal body part transport among the Hadza. Journal of Archaeological Science 17: 301-16.
96. Parkington, J. 1976. Coastal settlement between the mouths of the Berg and the Olifants Rivers, Cape Province. South African Archaeological Bulletin 31: 127-40.
97. Parkington, J. 1991. Approaches to dietary reconstruction in the Western Cape: are you what you have eaten? Journal of Archaeological Science 18: 331-42.
98. Plug, I. 2006. Aquatic animals and their associates from the Middle Stone Age levels at Sibudu. Southern African Humanities 18 (1): 289-99.
99. Plug, I. & Clark, J.L. 2008. In the air: a preliminary report on the birds from Sibudu Cave, KwaZulu- Natal, South Africa. South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series 10: 133-42.
100. Radloff, F.G.T. 2008. The ecology of large herbivores native to the coastal lowlands of the fynbos biome in the Western Cape, South Africa. PhD thesis, University of Stellenbosch.
101. Reynard, J.P. 2011. The unidentified long bone fragments from the Middle Stone Age Still Bay layers at Blombos Cave, southern Cape, South Africa. MSc thesis, University of the Witwatersrand.
102. Savelle, J.M. & Friesen, M.T. 1996. An Odontocete (Cetacea) meat utility index. Journal of Archaeological Science 23: 713-21.
103. Savelle, J.M., Friesen, T.M. & Lyman, R.L. 1996. Derivation and application of an Otariid utility index. Journal of Archaeological Science 23: 705-12.
104. Schoener, T.W. 1979. Generality of the size-distance relation in models of Optimal Feeding. American Naturalist 114: 902-14.
105. Schwarcz, H.P. & Rink, W.J. 2000. ESR dating of the Die Kelders Cave 1 Site, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution 38: 121-8.
106. Sealy, J. 2006. Diet, mobility and settlement pattern among Holocene hunter-gatherers in southernmost Africa. Current Anthropology 47: 569-95.
107. Sealy, J. & Galimberti, M. 2011. Shellfishing and the interpretation of shellfish sizes in the Middle and Late Stone Ages of South Africa. In: N. Bicho, J.A. Haws & L.G. Davis, eds., Trekking the shore: changing coastlines and the antiquity of coastal settlement. New York: Springer, pp. 405-19.
108. Sealy, J.C. & Van der Merwe, N.J. 1986. Isotope Assessment and the seasonal-mobility hypothesis in the southwestern Cape of South Africa. Current Anthropology 27: 135-50.
109. Singer, R. & Wymer, J., eds. 1982. The Middle Stone Age at Klasies River Mouth in South Africa. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
110. Skern-Mauritzen, M., Kirkman, S.P., Olsen, E., Bjørge, A., Drapeau, L., Meÿer, M.A., Roux, J.P., Swanson, S. & Oosthuizen, W.H. 2009. Do inter-colony differences in Cape fur seal foraging behaviour reflect large-scale changes in the northern Benguela ecosystem? African Journal of Marine Science 31: 399-408.
111. Smith, A.B. & Kinahan, J. 1984. The invisible whale. World Archaeology 16: 89-97.
112. Smith, E.A. 1983. Anthropological applications of optimal foraging theory: a critical review. Current Anthropology 24: 625-51.
113. Smithers, R.H.N. 1983. The mammals of the southern African subregion. Pretoria: University of Pretoria.
114. Steele, J. & Klein, R.G. 2009. Late Pleistocene subsistence strategies and resource intensification in Africa. In: J.-J. Hublin & M.P. Richards, eds., The evolution of hominin diets: integrating approaches to the study of Palaeolithic subsistence. Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 113-26.
115. Steele, T.E. & Álvarez-Fernández, E. 2011. Initial investigations into the exploitation of coastal resources in North Africa during the Late Pleistocene at Grotte des Contrebandiers, Morocco. In: N.F. Bicho, J.A. Haws & L.G. Davis, eds., Trekking the shore: changing coastlines and the antiquity of coastal settlement. New York: Springer, pp. 383-403.
116. Steele, T.E. & Klein, R.G. 2008. Intertidal shellfish use during the Middle and Later Stone Age of South Africa. Archaeofauna 17: 63-76.
117. Steele, T.E. & Klein, R.G. 2013a. Archaeological shellfish size and later human evolution in Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110: 10910-15.
118. Steele, T.E. & Klein, R.G. 2013b. The Middle and Later Stone Age faunal remains from Diepkloof Rock Shelter, Western Cape, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science 40: 3453-62.
119. Stewardson, C.L. 2009. Biology and conservation of the Cape (South African) fur seal Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus (Pinnipedia: Otariidae) from the Eastern Cape coast of South Africa. PhD thesis, Australian National University.
120. Thackeray, J.F. 1988. Molluscan fauna from Klasies River, South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin 43: 27-32.
121. Thompson, J.C. 2009. Zooarchaeological tests for modern human behaviour at Blombos Cave and Pinnacle Point Cave 13B, southwestern Cape, South Africa. PhD thesis, Arizona State University.
122. Thompson, J.C. 2010. Taphonomic analysis of the Middle Stone Age faunal assemblage from Pinnacle Point Cave 13B, Western Cape, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution 59: 321-39.
123. Thompson, J.C. & Henshilwood, C.S. 2011. Taphonomic analysis of the Middle Stone Age larger mammal faunal assemblage from Blombos Cave, southern Cape, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution 60: 746-67.
124. Tribolo, C., Mercier, N., Selo, M., Valladas, H., Joron, J.L., Reyss, J.L., Henshilwood, C., Sealy, J. & Yates, R. 2006. TL dating of burnt lithics from Blombos Cave (South Africa): further evidence for the antiquity of modern human behaviour. Archaeometry 48: 341-57.
125. Ugan, A. 2005. Does size matter? Body size, mass collecting and their implications for understanding prehistoric foraging behaviour. American Antiquity 70: 75-89.
126. Ugan, A., Bright, J. & Rogers, A. 2003. When is technology worth the trouble? Journal of Archaeological Science 30: 1315-29.
127. Van Andel, T.H. 1989. Late Pleistocene sea levels and the human exploitation of the shore and shelf of southern South Africa. Journal of Field Archaeology 16: 133-55.
128. Van Erkom Schurink, C. & Griffiths, C.L. 1991. A comparison of reproductive cycles and reproductive output in four southern African mussel species. Marine Ecology Progress Series 76: 123-34.
129. Van Niekerk, K.L. 2011. Marine fish exploitation during the Middle and Later Stone Age of South Africa. PhD thesis, University of Cape Town.
130. Van Wyk, B.-E. & Gericke, N. 2000. People's plants: a guide to useful plants of southern Africa. Pretoria: Briza Publications.
131. Van Pletzen, L. 2000. The large mammal fauna from Klasies River. MA dissertation, University of Stellenbosch.
132. Villa, P., Soressi, M., Henshilwood, C.S. & Mourre, V. 2009. The Still Bay points of Blombos Cave (South Africa). Journal of Archaeological Science 36: 441-60.
133. Voigt, E.A. 1982. The molluscan fauna. In: R. Singer & J. Wymer, eds., The Middle Stone Age at Klasies River Mouth in South Africa. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 155-99.
134. Von den Driesch, A. 2004. The Middle Stone Age fish remains from the Klasies River main site, South Africa. Antropozoologica 39: 33-59.
135. Wadley, L. 2010. Were snares and traps used in the Middle Stone Age and does it matter? A review and a case study from Sibudu, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution 58: 179-92.
136. Waelbroeck, C., Labeyrie, L., Michel, E., Duplessy, J.C., McManus, J.F., Lambeck, K., Balbon, E. & Labracherie, M. 2002. Sea-level and deep water temperature changes derived from benthic foraminifera isotopic records. Quaternary Science Reviews 21: 295-305.
137. Walter, R.C., Buffler, R.T., Bruggemann, J.H., Guillaume, M.M.M., Berhe, S.M., Negassi, B., Libsekal, Y., Cheng, H., Edwards, R.L., von Cosel, R., Neraudeau, D. & Gagnon, M. 2000. Early human occupation of the Red Sea coast of Eritrea during the last interglacial. Nature 405: 65-9.
138. Waselkov, G.A. 1987. Shellfish gathering and shell midden archaeology. Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory 10: 93-210.
139. Weaver, T.D., Steele, T.E. & Klein, R.G. 2011. The abundance of eland, buffalo, and wild pigs in Middle and Later Stone Age sites. Journal of Human Evolution 60: 309-14.
140. Wiesel, I. 2006. Predatory and foraging behaviour of brown hyenas (Parahyaena brunnea (Thunberg 1820)) at Cape fur seal (Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus Schreber 1776) Colonies. PhD thesis, University of Hamburg.
141. Winterhalder, B. 1987. The analysis of hunter-gatherer diets: Stalking an optimal foraging model. In: M. Harris & E.B. Ross, eds., Food and evolution: toward a theory of human food habits. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, pp. 311-41.
142. Winterhalder, B. 2001. The behavioural ecology of hunter-gatherers. In: C. Panter-Brick, R.H. Layton & P. Rowley-Conwy, eds., Hunter-gatherers: an interdisciplinary perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 12-38.
143. Woodborne, S., Hart, K. & Parkington, J. 1995. Seal bones as indicators of the timing and duration of hunter-gatherer coastal visits. Journal of Archaeological Science 22: 727-40.
144. Wurz, S. 2002. Variability in the Middle Stone Age Lithic Sequence, 115,000-60,000 years ago at Klasies River, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science 29: 1001-15.
145. Zeanah, D.W. 2004. Sexual division of labor and central place foraging: a model for the Carson Desert of western Nevada. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 23: 1-32.