Management for Mountain Pine Beetle Outbreak Suppression: Does Relevant science support current policy?

Forests

Volumn 5, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 103-133

  Six, Diana L ^a   Biber, Eric ^b   Long, Elisabeth ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Bark beetle; Clearcut; Climate change; Climate change adaptation; Daylighting; Dendroctonus ponderosae; Forest pest management; Monitoring; Sanitation; Thinning

Indexed keywords

EID: 84894439127     PISSN: None     EISSN: 19994907     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/f5010103     Document Type: Review

References (143)

1. Allen, D.C.; Macalady, A.K.; Chenchouni, H.; Bachelet, D.; McDowell, N.; Vennetier, M.; Kizberger, T.; Rigling, A.; Breshears, D.D.; Hogg, E.H. A global overview of drought and heat-induced tree mortality reveals emerging climate risks for forests. For. Ecol. Manag. 2010, 259, 660-684.
2. Raffa, K.F.; Aukema, B.H.; Bentz, B.J.; Carroll, A.L.; Hicke, J.A.; Turner, M.G.; Romme, W.H. Cross-Scale drivers of natural disturbances prone to anthropogenic amplification: The dynamics of bark beetle eruptions. BioScience 2008, 58, 501-517.
3. Nelson, T.; Boots, B.; White, K.J.; Smith, A.C. The impact of treatment on mountain pine beetle infestation rates. Br. Columbia J. Ecosyst. Manag. 2006, 7, 20-36.
4. Hicke, J.A.; Logan, J.A.; Powell, J.; Ojima, D.S. Changing temperatures influence suitability for modeled mountain pine beetle outbreaks in the western United States. J. Geophys. Res. Biogeosci. 2006, 111, G02019.
5. Evagelista, P.H.; Kumar, S.; Stohlgren, T.J.; Young, N.E. Assessing forest vulnerability and the potential distribution of pine beetles under current and future climate scenarios in the interior West of the US. For. Ecol. Manag. 2011, 262, 307-316.
6. Coops, N.C.; Timko, J.A.; Wulder, M.A.; White, J.C.; Ortlepp, S.M. Investigating the effectiveness of mountain pine beetle mitigation strategies. Int. J. Pest Manag. 2009, 54, 151-165.
7. Taylor, P. Wildfires: Nearly a Decade Old, Healthy Forests Law Gets Mixed Reviews; E&E Publishing: Calgary, Canada, 20 July 2012.
8. Conservation. U.S. Code, Section 6512(a)(4), Title 16, 2012.
9. Healthy Forests Restoration Act of 2003. Public Law 108-148, Section 102(a)(4), 2003.
10. Conservation. U.S. Code, Section 6512(e)&(f), Title 16, 2012.
11. Healthy Forests Restoration Act of 2003. Public Law 108-148, Section 102(e)&(f), 2003.
12. Conservation. U.S. Code, Sections 6551-6554, Title 16, 2012.
13. Healthy Forests Restoration Act of 2003. Public Law 108-148, Sections 401-404, 2003.
14. Healthy Forests Restoration Act of 2003. Public Law 108-148, Section 401(b)(3), 2003.
15. 2002 Supplemental Appropriations Act for Further Recovery from and Response to Terrorist Attacks on the United States. Public Law 107-206, Section 706, 2002.
16. An Act Making Appropriations for Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs for the Fiscal Year Ending September 30, 2005, and For Other Purposes. Public Law 108-447, Sections 337-37, 2004.
17. Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008. Public Law 110-234, Sections 9001, 9003, 9004, 2008.
18. Agriculture Reform, Food, and Jobs Act of 2013. Senate Bill 10, 113th Congress, 2013.
19. Depleting Risk from Insect Infestation, Soil Erosion, and Catastrophic Fire Act. House of Representatives Bill 1442, 113th Congress, 2013.
20. National Forest Insect and Disease Treatment Act of 2013. Senate Bill 745, 113th Congress, 2013.
21. Agriculture Reform, Food, and Jobs Act of 2013. Senate Bill 954, 113th Congress, 2013.
22. Federal Agriculture Reform and Risk Management Act of 2013. House of Representatives Bill 2642, 113th Congress, 2013.
23. Depleting Risk from Insect Infestation, Soil Erosion, and Catastrophic Fire Act of 2012. House of Representatives Bill 5960, 112th Congress, 2012.
24. National Forest Emergency Response Act. House of Representatives Bill 4331, 112th Congress, 2012.
25. Catastrophic Wildfire Prevention Act of 2013. House of Representatives Bill 1345, 113th Congress, 2013.
26. Healthy Forest Management and Wildfire Prevention Act. House of Representatives Bill 818, 113th Congress, 2013.
27. Healthy Forest Management Act of 2012. House of Representatives Bill 6089, 112th Congress, 2012.
28. To Amend the Clean Air Act to Conform the Definition of Renewable Biomass to the Definition Given the Term in the Farm Security and Rural Investment Act of 2002. House of Representatives Bill 1920, 112th Congress, 2011.
29. Forest Ecosystem Recovery and Protection Act. House of Representatives Bill 5192, 111th Congress, 2010.
30. To Authorize the Secretary of the Interior and the Secretary of Agriculture to Make Grants to Improve the Commercial Value of Forest Biomass for Electric Energy, Useful Heat, Transportation Fuels, Petroleum-Based Product Substitutes, and Other Commercial Purposes. H.R. 1550, 108th Congress, 2003.
31. Good Neighbor Forestry Act. Senate Bill 327, 113th Congress, 2013.
32. Good Neighbor Forestry Act. House of Representatives Bill 2401, 113th Congress, 2013.
33. Good Neighbor Forestry Act. Senate Bill 375, 112th Congress, 2011.
34. Forest Jobs and Recreation Act of 2011. Senate Bill 268, 112th Congress, 2011.
35. 2002 Supplemental Appropriations Act for Further Recovery from and Response to Terrorist Attacks on the United States. House of Representatives Bill 4775, 107th Congress, 2002.
36. Reese, A. Daschle Fuels Exemption Fires up Western Republicans; E&E Publishing: Calgary, Canada, 1 August 2002.
37. Taylor, P. Slew of Conservation, Forest and Grazing Bills Reintroduced; E&E Publishing: Calgary, Canada, 15 February 2013.
38. Testimony from Subcommittee on National Parks, Forests and Public Lands Hearing on H.R. 5744, H.R. 5960, and H.R. 6089, Government Printing Office. Available online: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-112hhrg75278/html/CHRG-112hhrg75278.htm (accessed on 8 January 2014).
39. Taylor, P. House Panel Mulls Response to Western Wildfires; E&E Publishing: Calgary, Canada, 16 July 2012.
40. Char Miller, Dog-and-Pony Show: How a Congressman Expects to Solve Bark-Beetle Infestations, KCET; E&E Publishing: Calgary, Canada, 16 May 2012.
41. Taylor, P. Agency Prescribes Logging in Bid to Blunt Pine Beetle in Black Hills. E&E NEWS, E&E Publishing: Calgary, Canada, 6 November 2012.
42. Western Bark Beetle Strategy. Available online: http://www.fs.fed.us/restoration/Bark_Beetle (accessed on 8 January 2014).
43. Udall Bark Beetle Report. Available online: http://www.fs.usda.gov/detail/barkbeetle/home/?cid=stelprdb5340741 (accessed on 8 January 2014).
44. Legislative Hearing, Government Printing Office. Available online: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-113hhrg80441/html/CHRG-113hhrg80441.htm (accessed on 8 January 2014).
45. Wood, S.L. The bark and ambrosia beetles of North and Central America (Coleoptera: Scolytidae), a taxonomic monograph. Great Basin Nat. 1982, 6, 1-1359.
46. Furniss, R.; Carolin, V. Western Forest Insects; Miscellaneous Publication Number 1339; USDA Pacific Northwestern Forest and Range Experiment Station: Washington, DC, USA, 1977.
47. Berryman, A.A. Resistance of conifers to invasion by bark beetle-fungus associations. Bioscience 1972, 22, 598-602.
48. Raffa, K.F.; Berryman, A.A. The role of host plant resistance in the colonization behavior and ecology of bark beetles (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). Ecol. Monogr. 1983, 53, 27-49.
49. Francheschi, V.R.; Krokene, P.; Christiansen, E.; Krekling, T. Anatomical and chemical defenses of conifer bark against bark beetles and other pests. New Phytol. 2005, 167, 353-375.
50. Paine, T.D.; Raffa, K.F.; Harrington, T.C. Interactions among scolytid bark beetles, their associated fungi, and live host conifers. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 1997, 42, 179-206.
51. Clark, E.L.; Huber, D.P.W.; Carroll, A.L. The legacy of attack: Implications of high phloem resin monoterpene levels in lodgepole pines following mass attack by mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins. Environ. Entomol. 2012, 4, 392-398.
52. Wood, D.L. The role of pheromones, kairomones, and allomones in the host selection and colonization behavior of bark beetles. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 1982, 27, 411-446.
53. Raffa, K.F.; Phillips, T.W.; Salom, S.M. Strategies and Mechanisms of Host Colonization by Bark Beetles. In Beetle-Pathogen Interactions in Conifer Forests; Academic Press: New York, NY, USA, 1993; pp. 104-128.
54. Six, D.L.; Wingfield, M.J. The role of phytopathogenicity on bark beetle-fungus symbioses: A challenge to the classic paradigm. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 2011, 56, 255-272.
55. Christiansen, E.; Waring, R.H.; Berryman, A.A. Resistance of conifers to bark beetle attack: Searching for general relationships. For. Ecol. Manag. 1987, 22, 89-106.
56. Berryman, A.A. Theoretical explanation of mountain pine beetle dynamics in lodgepole pine forests. Environ. Entomol. 1976, 5, 1225-1233.
57. Yanchuk, A.D.; Murphy, J.C.; Wallin, K.F. Evaluation of genetic variation of attack and resistance in lodgepole pine in early stages of a mountain pine beetle outbreak. Tree Genet. Genomes 2008, 4, 171-180.
58. Millar, C.I.; Westfall, R.D.; Delaney, D.L.; Bokach, A.L.; Flint, A.L.; Flint, L.E. Forest mortality in high-elevation whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) forests of Eastern California, USA; influence of environmental context, bark beetles, climatic water deficit, and warming. Can. J. For. Res. 2012, 42, 749-765.
59. Smith, R.H. Xylem Monoterpenes of Pines: Distribution, Variation, Genetics, and Function; USDA FS Gener. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR 2000; Pacific Southwest Research Station, US Department of Agriculture Forest Service: Berkeley, CA, USA, July 2000.
60. Raffa, K.F.; Powell, E.N.; Townsend, P.A. Temperature-Driven range expansion of an irruptive insect heightened by weakly coevolved plant defenses. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2013, 110, 2193-2198.
61. Boone, C.K.; Aukema, B.H.; Bohlmann, J.; Carroll, A.L.; Raffa, K.F. Efficacy of tree defense physiology varies with bark beetle population density: A basis for positive feedback in eruptive species. Can. J. For. Res. 2011, 41, 1174-1188.
62. Berryman, A.A.; Stenseth, N.C.; Isaev, A.S. Natural regulation of herbivorous forest insect populations. Oecologia 1987, 71, 174-184.
63. Bentz, B.J.; Régnière, J.; Fettig, C.J.; Hansen, E.M.; Hayes, J.L.; Hicke, J.A.; Kelsey, R.G.; Negrón, J.F.; Seybold, S.J. Climate change and bark beetles of the Western United States and Canada: Direct and indirect effects. BioScience 2010, 60, 602-613.
64. Raffa, K.F.; Aukema, B.H.; Erbilgin, N.; Klepzig, K.D.; Wallin, K.F. Interactions among conifer terpenoids and bark beetles across multiple levels of scale: An attempt to understand links between population patterns and physiological processes. Recent Adv. Phytochem. 2005, 39, 79-118.
65. Preisler, H.K.; Hicke, J.A.; Ager, A.A.; Hayes, J.L. Climate and weather influences on spatial and temporal patterns of mountain pine beetle populations in Washington and Oregon. Ecology 2012, 93, 2421-2434.
66. Thompson, A.J.; Shrimpton, D.M. Weather assocated with the start of mountain pine beetle outbreaks. Can. J. For. Res. 1984, 14, 255-258.
67. McKee, F.R.; Huber, D.P.W.; Aukema, B.H. Comparisons of mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins) reproduction within a novel and traditional host: Effects of insect natal history, colonized host species and competitors. Agric. For. Entomol. 2013, 15, 310-320.
68. Safranyik, L.; Carroll, A. The Biology and Epidemiology of the Mountain Pine Beetle in Lodgepole Pine Forests. In The Mountain Pine Beetle: A Synthesis of Biology, Management, and Impacts on Lodgepole Pine; Canadian Forest Service: Victoria, BC, Canada, 2007; pp. 3-66.
69. Bentz, B.J.; Logan, J.A.; Amman, G.D. Temperature dependent development of mountain pine beetle and simulation of its phenology. Can. Entomol. 1991, 123, 1083-1094.
70. Logan, J.A.; Bentz, B.J. Model analysis of mountain pine beetle (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) Seasonality. Environ. Entomol. 1999, 28, 924-934.
71. Powell, J.A.; Logan, J.A. Insect seasonality: Circle map analysis of temperature-driven life cycles. Theor. Popul. Biol. 2005, 67, 161-179.
72. Bentz, B.J.; Mullins, D.E. Ecology of mountain pine beetle (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) cold hardening in the intermountain West. Environ. Entomol. 1999, 28, 577-587.
73. Logan, J.; Powell, J. Ghost Forests, global warming, and the mountain pine beetle (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). Am. Entomol. 2001, 47,162-172.
74. Bleiker, K.P.; Six, D.L. Competition and coexistence in a multi-partner mutualism: Interactions between two fungal symbionts of the mountain pine beetle in beetle attacked trees. Microb. Ecol. 2009, 57, 191-202.
75. Breshears, D.D.; Cobb, N.S.; Rich, P.M.; Price, K.P.; Allen, C.D.; Balice, R.G.; Romme, W.H.; Kastens, J.H.; Floyd, M.L.; Belnap, J.; Anderson, J.J.; Myers, O.B.; Meyer, C.W. Regional vegetation die-offin response to global-type drought. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2005, 102, 5141-5148.
76. Chapman, T.B.; Veblen, T.T.; Schoennagel, T. Spatiotemporal patterns of mountain pine beetle activity in the southern Rocky Mountains. Ecology 2012, 93, 2175-2185.
77. Knapp, P.A.; Soule, P.T.; Maxwell, J.T. Mountain pine beetle selectivity in old-growth ponderosa pine forests, Montana, USA. Ecol. Evol. 2012, 3, 1141-1148.
78. Carroll, A.L.; Taylor, S.W.; Régnière, J.; Safranyik, L. Effects of Climate Change on Range Expansion by the Mountain Pine Beetle in British Columbia. In Mountain Pine Beetle Symposium: Challenges and Solutions; Canadian Forest Service: Kelowna, BC, Canada, 2004; pp. 223-232.
79. Logan, J.A.; Regniere, J.; Powell, J.A. Assessing the impacts of global warming on forest pest dynamics. Front. Ecol. Environ. 2003, 1, 130-137.
80. Cunningham, C.I.; Cooke, J.E.K.; Dang, S.; Davis, C.S.; Cooke, B.J.; Coltman, D.W. Mountain pine beetle range expansion threatens the boreal forest. Mol. Ecol. 2010, 20, 2157-2171.
81. Bleiker, K.P.; Carroll, A.L.; Smith, G.D. Mountain Pine Beetle Range Expansion: Assessing the Threat to Canada's Boreal Forest by Evaluating the Endemic Niche. In Mountain Pine Beetle Working Paper 2010-02; Natural Resources Canada: Victoria, BC, Canada, 2011; pp. 1-23.
82. De la Giroday, H.-M.C.; Carroll, A.L.; Aukema, B.H. Breach of the northern Rocky Mountain geoclimatic barrier: Initiation of range expansion by the mountain pine beetle. J. Biogeogr. 2012, 39, 1112-1123.
83. Cudmore, T.J.; Bjorklund, N.; Carroll, A.L.; Lindgren, B.S. Climate change and range expansion of an aggressive bark beetle: Evidence of higher beetle reproduction in naïve host tree populations. J. Appl. Ecol. 2010, 47, 1036-1043.
84. Erbilgin, N.; Ma, C.; Whitehouse, C.; Shan, B.; Najar, A.; Evenden, M. Chemical similarity between historical and novel host plants promotes range and host expansion of the mountain pine beetle in a naïve host ecosystem. New Phytolo. 2013, doi:10.1111/nph.12573.
85. Logan, J.A.; Macfarlane, W.W.; Willcox, L. Whitebark pine vulnerability to climate-driven mountain pine beetle disturbance in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Ecol. Appl. 2010, 20, 895-902.
86. Gibson, K. Mountain Pine Beetle Conditions in Whitebark Pine Stands in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem; Numbered Report 06-03; USDA Forest Service, Northern Region: Missoula, MT, USA, 2006.
87. Bentz, B.J.; Schen-Langenheim, G. The Mountain Pine Beetle and Whitebark Pine Waltz: Has the Music Changed? In Proceedings of Whitebark Pine: A Pacific Coast Perspective, USDA Forest Service Report R6-NR-FHP-2007-01; US Forest Service: Ashland, OR, USA, 2007; pp. 43-50.
88. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; 12-Month Finding on a Petition to List Pinus albicaulis as Endangered or Threatened with Critical Habitat; Fish and Wildlife Service: Washington, DC, USA, 2011; pp. 42631-42654.
89. Species at Risk Public Registry, Canada. Available online: http://sararegistry.gc.ca/species/speciesdetails_e.ctm?sid+1086 (accessed on 9 January 2014).
90. Carroll, A.L.; Shore, T.L.; Safranyik, L. Direct Control: Theory and Practice. In The Mountain Pine Beetle: A Synthesis of Biology, Management, and Impact on Lodgepole Pine; Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre: Victoria, BC, Canada, 2006; pp. 155-172.
91. Fettig, C.J.; Gibson, K.E.; Munson, A.S.; Negron, J.F. Cultural practices for prevention and mitigation of mountain pine beetle infestations. For. Sci. 2014. Available online: http://dx.doi.org/10.5849/forsci.13-032 (accessed on 30 November 2013).
92. Gibson, K.E. Management Guide for Mountain Pine Beetle. Forest Insect and Disease Management Guide for the Northern and Central Rocky Mountains; USDA Forest Service, Northern Region, State and Private Forestry: Missoula, MT, USA, 2004; p. 16.
93. Eaton, C.B. Influence of the mountain pine beetle on the composition of mixed pole stands of ponderosa pine and white fir. J. For. 1941, 39, 710-713.
94. Bartos, D.L.; Amman, G.D. Microclimate: An alternative to tree vigor as a basis for mountain pine beetle infestations. USDA For. Serv. Res. Paper INT-400; Intermountain Research Station, USDA Forest Service: Ogden, UT, USA, 1989; p. 10.
95. Thistle, H.W.; Petersen, H.; Allwine, G.; Lamb, B.K.; Strand, T.; Holsten, E.H.; Shea, P.J. Surrogate pheromone plumes in three forest trunk spaces: Composite statistics and case studies. For. Sci. 2004, 50, 610-625.
96. Wulder, M.A.; Ortlepp, S.M.; White, J.C.; Coops, N.C.; Coggins, S.B. Monitoring the impacts of mountain pine beetle mitigation. For. Ecol. Manag. 2009, 258, 1181-1187.
97. Bradley, T. Mountain Pine Beetle Literature Review. Available online: http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/library/documents/bib98295.pdf (accessed on 13 January 2014).
98. Sartwell, C.; Dolph, R.E. Silvicultural and Direct Control of Mountain Pine Beetle in Second-Growth Ponderosa Pine; US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station: Portland, OR, USA, 1976; p. 8.
99. Whitney, H.S.; Safranyik, L.; Muraro, J.S.; Dyer, E.D.A. In Defense of the Concept of Direct Control of Mountain Pine Beetle Populations in Lodgepole Pine: Some Modern Approaches. In Proceedings of Symposium on Theory and Practice of Mountain Pine Beetle Management in Lodgepole Pine Forests, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA, 25-27 April 1978; pp. 159-164.
100. Craighead, F.C.; Miller, J.M.; Evenden, J.A.; Keen, F.P. Control work against bark beetles in western forests and an appraisal of results. J. For. 1931, 29, 1001-1018.
101. Amman, G.D.; Baker, B.H. Mountain pine beetle influence on lodgepole pine structure. J. For. 1972, 70, 204-209.
102. Klein, W.H. Strategies and Tactics for Reducing Losses in Lodgepole Pine to the Mountain Pine Beetle by Chemical and Mechanical Means. In Proceedings of the Symposium on Theory and Practice of Mountain Pine Beetle Management in Lodgepole Pine Forests, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, USA, 25-27 April 1978; pp. 54-63.
103. Amman, G.D.; Logan, J.A. Silvicultural control of mountain pine beetle: Prescriptions and the influence of microclimate. Am. Entomol. 1998, 44,166-177.
104. Trzcinski, M.K.; Reid, M.L. Effect of management on the spatial spread of mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) in BanffNational Park. For. Ecol. Manag. 2008, 256, 1418-1426.
105. Coggins, S.B.; Coops, N.C.; Wulder, M.A.; Bater, C.W.; Ortlepp, S.M. Comparing the impacts of mitigation and non-mitigation on mountain pine beetle populations. J. Environ. Manag. 2011, 92, 112-120.
106. Fahse, L.; Heurich, M. Simulation and analysis of outbreaks of bark beetle infestations and their management at the stand level. Ecol. Modell. 2011, 222, 1833-1846.
107. Whitehead, R.J.; Russo, G.L. "Beetle-Proofed" Lodgepole Pine Stands in Interior British Columbia have Less Damage from Mountain Pine Beetle; Information Report BC-X-402; Natural Resources Canada: Victoria, BC, Canada, 2005.
108. Waring, R.H.; Pitman, G.B. Modifying lodgepole pine stands to change susceptibility to mountain pine beetle attack. Ecology 1985, 66, 889-897.
109. Kolb, T.E.; Holmberg, K.M.; Wagner, M.R.; Stone, J.E. Regulation of ponderosa pine foliar physiology and insect resistance mechanisms by basal area treatments. Tree Physiol. 1998, 18, 375-381.
110. Amman, G.D.; McGregor, M.D.; Schmitz, R.F.; Oakes, R.D. Susceptibility of lodgepole pine to infestation by mountain pine beetles following partial cutting of stands. Can. J. For. Res. 1988, 18, 688-695.
111. Zausen, G.L.; Kolb, T.E.; Bailey, J.D.; Wagner, M.R. Long-Term impacts of stand management on ponderosa pine physiology and bark beetle abundance in northern Arizona: A replicated study. For. Ecol. Manag. 2005, 218, 291-305.
112. McDowell, N.G.; Adams, H.D.; Bailey, J.D.; Kolb, T.E. The role of stand density on growth efficiency, leaf area index, and resin flow in southwestern forests. Can. J. For. Res. 2007, 37, 343-355.
113. Six, D.L.; Skov, K. Response of bark beetles and their natural enemies to fire and fire surrogate treatments in mixed-conifer forests in western Montana. For. Ecol. Manag. 2009, 258, 761-772.
114. Raffa, K.F.; Berryman, A.A. Physiological differences between lodgepole pines resistant and susceptible to the mountain pine beetle and associated microorganisms. Environ. Entomol. 1982, 11, 486-492.
115. Shepherd, R.F. Factors influencing the orientation and rates of activity of Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). Can. Entomol. 1966, 98, 507-518.
116. Schmitz, R.F.; McGregor, M.D.; Amman, G.D.; Oakes, R.D. Effect of partial cutting of lodgepole pine stands on the abundance and behavior of flying mountain pine beetles. Can. J. For. Res. 1989, 19, 566-574.
117. Keane, R.E.; Schoettle, A.W. Strategies, Tools, and Challenges for Sustaining High Elevation Five-Needle White Pine Forests in Western North America. In Proceedings of the High Five Symposium on the Future of High-Elevation, Five-Needle White Pines in Western North America, Missoula, MT, USA, 28-30 June 2010.
118. Schmid, J.M.; Mata, S.A.; Olsen, W.K. Microclimate and Mountain Pine Beetles in Two Ponderosa Pine Stands in the Black Hills; USDA Forest Service Research Note RM-516; USDA Forest Service: Fort Collins, CO, USA, 1995; pp. 1-12.
119. MacQuarrie, C.J.K.; Cooke, B. Density-Dependent population dynamics of mountain pine beetle in thinned and unthinned stands. Can. J. For. Res. 2011, 41, 1031-1046.
120. Fettig, C.J.; Klepzig, K.D.; Billings, R.F.; Munson, A.S.; Nebeker, T.E.; Negron, J.F.; Nowack, J.T. The effectiveness of vegetation management practices for prevention and control of bark beetles outbreaks in coniferous forests of the western and southern United States. For. Ecol. Manag. 2007, 238, 24-53.
121. Egan, J.M.; Jacobi, W.R.; Negron, J.F.; Smith, S.L.; Cluck, D.R. Forest thinning and subsequent bark beetle-caused mortality in Northeastern California. For. Ecol. Manag. 2010, 260, 1832-1842.
122. Klenner, W.; Arsenault, A. Ponderosa pine mortality during a severe bark beetle (Coleoptera: Curculionidae, Scolytinae) outbreak in southern British Columbia and implications for wildlife habitat management. For. Ecol. Manag. 2009, 258S, S5-S14.
123. Preisler, H.K.; Mitchell, R.G. Colonisation patterns of the mountain pine beetle in thinned and unthinned lodgepole pine stands. For. Sci. 1993, 39, 528-545.
124. Six, D.L. Long-Term assessment of fire and fire surrogate treatments on mixed conifer forests in Montana. 2014, Unpublished.
125. Parma, AM. What can adaptive management do for our fish, forests, food, and biodiversity? Integr. Biol. 1998, 1, 16-26.
126. Hansen, E.M.; Negron, J.F.; Munson, A.S.; Anhold, J.A. A retrospective assessment of partial cutting to reduce spruce beetle-caused mortality in the southern Rock Mountains. West. J. Appl. For. 2010, 25, 81-87.
127. Hawkins, C.D.B.; Dhar, A.; Balliet, N.A.; Runzer, K.D. Residual mature trees and secondary stand structure after mountain pine beetle attack in central British Columbia. For. Ecol. Manag. 2012, 277, 107-115.
128. Klutsch, J.G.; Negron, J.F.; Costello, S.L.; Rhoades, C.C.; West, D.R.; Popp, J.; Caissie, R. Stand characteristics and downed woody debris accumulations associated with a mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins) outbreak in Colorado. For. Ecol. Manag. 2009, 258, 641-649.
129. Collins, B.J.; Rhoades, C.C.; Hubbard, R.M.; Battaglia, M.A. Tree regeneration and future stand development after bark beetle infestation and harvesting in Colorado lodgepole pine stands. For. Ecol. Manag. 2011, 261, 2168-2175.
130. McCambridge, W.F.; Hawksworth, F.G.; Edminster, C.B.; Laut, J.G. Ponderosa Pine Mortality Resulting from a Mountain Pine Beetle Outbreak; USDA Forest Service Research Paper RM-235; Rocky Mountain Research Station: Fort Collins, CO, USA, 1982; p. 7.
131. Olsen, W.K.; Schmid, J.M.; Mata, S.A. Stand characteristics associated with mountain pine beetle infestations in ponderosa pine. For. Sci. 1996, 42, 310-327.
132. Coates, K.D.; DeLong, C.; Burton, P.J.; Sachs, D.L. Abundance of Secondary Structure in Lodegpole Pine Stands Affected by the Mountain Pine Beetle. Available online: http//:www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfp/mountain_pine_beetle/stewardship/report.pdf (accessed on 30 November 2013).
133. Diskin, M.; Rocca, M.E.; Nelson, K.N.; Aoki, C.F.; Romme, W.H. Forest developmental trajectories in mountain pine beetle disturbed forests of Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado. Can. J. For. Res. 2011, 41, 782-792.
134. Kayes, L.J.; Tinker, D.B. Forest Structure and regeneration following a mountain pine beetle epidemic in southeastern Wyoming. For. Ecol. Manag. 2012, 263, 57-66.
135. Hansen. M.E. Forest Development and Carbon Dynamics after Mountain Pine Beetle Outbreaks. For. Sci. 2014. Available online: http://dx.doi.org/10.5849/Forsci.13-039 (accessed on 30 November 2013).
136. Ager, A.A.; McMahan, A.; Hayes, J.L.; Smith, E.L. Modeling the effects of thinning on bark beetle impacts and wildfire potential in the Blue Mountains of eastern Oregon. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2007, 80, 301-311.
137. Martin, K.; Norris, A.; Drever, M. Effects of bark beetle outbreaks on avian biodiversity in the British Columbia Interior: Implications for critical habitat management. BC J. Ecosyst. Manag. 2006, 7, 10-24.
138. Franklin, J.F.; Spies, T.A.; van Pelt, R.; Carey, A.B.; Thornburgh, D.A.; Berg, D.R.; Lindenmayer, D.B.; Harmon, M.E.; Keeton, W.S.; Shaw, D.C.; et al. Disturbances and structural development of natural forest ecosystems with silvicultural implications using Douglas-fir forests as an example. For. Ecol. Manag. 2002, 155, 399-423.
139. Larson, A.J.; Churchill, D. Tree spatial patterns in fire-frequent forests of western North America including mechanisms of pattern formation and implications for designing fuel reduction and restoration treatments. For. Ecol. Manag. 2012, 267, 74-92.
140. Millar, C.I.; Stephenson, N.L.; Stephens, S.L. Climate change and forests of the future: Managing in the face of uncertainty. Ecol. Appl. 2007, 17, 2145-2151.
141. Biber, E. The problem of environmental monitoring. Univ. Colo. Law Rev. 2011, 83, 1-82.
142. Ruhl, J.B.; Fischman, R.L. Adaptive management in the courts. Minn. Law Rev. 2010, 95, 424-484.
143. Eagle, J.; Thompson, B.H., Jr. Answering Lord Perry's question: Dissecting regulatory overfishing. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2003, 46, 649-679.