Habituation of reinforcer effectiveness

Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience

Volumn 7, Issue JAN, 2014, Pages

  Lloyd, David R ^a,b   Medina, Douglas J ^a   Hawk, Larry W ^b   Fosco, Whitney D ^b   Richards, Jerry B ^a  

^a RESEARCH INSTITUTE ON ADDICTIONS   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY AT BUFFALO   (United States)

Author keywords

ADHD; Behavioral regulation; Dopamine; Drug addiction; Obesity; Operant conditioning; Psychomotor stimulant; Sensory reinforcement

Indexed keywords

CENTRAL STIMULANT AGENT; DOPAMINE; METHAMPHETAMINE;

ARTICLE; ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER; BEHAVIOR DISORDER; DOPAMINE NEUROTRANSMISSION; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; HABITUATION; HABITUATION OF REINFORCER EFFECTIVENESS; HEREDITY; HUMAN; NEUROTRANSMISSION; NONHUMAN; OBESITY; REINFORCEMENT; SENSORY REINFORCEMENT;

EID: 84892608542     PISSN: 16625145     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fnint.2013.00107     Document Type: Article

References (128)

1. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
2. Aoyama, K., and McSweeney, F. K. (2001). Habituation may contribute to within-session decreases in responding under high-rate schedules of reinforcement. Anim. Learn. Behav. 29, 79-91. doi: 10.3758/BF03192817
3. Appel, J. B., and Hurwitz, H. M. B. (1959). Studies in light-reinforced behavior: IV. Effects of apparatus familiarization. Psychol. Rep. 5, 355-356. doi:10.2466/pr0.1959.5.3.355
4. Ariga, A., and Lleras, A. (2011). Brief and rare mental breaks keep you focused: deactivation and reactivation of task goals preempt vigi-lance decrements. Cognition 118, 439-443. doi: 10.1016/j.cognition.2010.12.007
5. Barkley, R. A. (1997). Defiant Children: A Clinician's Manual for Assessment and Parent Training. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
6. Berlyne, D. E. (1969). The reward-value of indifferent stimulation, in Reinforcement and Behavior, ed. J. T. Tapp (New York: Academic Press), 179-214.
7. Bianco, I. H., and Wilson, S. W. (2009). The habenular nuclei: a conserved asym-metric relay station in the vertebrate brain. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 364, 1005-1020. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2008.0213
8. Blanchard, R., and Honig, W. K. (1976). Surprise value of food determines its effectiveness as a reinforcer. J. Exp. Psychol. Anim. Behav. Process. 2, 67-74. doi: 10.1037/0097-7403.2.1.67
9. Blanck, H. M., Serdula, M. K., Gillespie, C., Galuska, D. A., Sharpe, P. A., Conway, J. M., et al. (2007). Use of nonprescription dietary supplements for weight loss is common among Americans. J. Am. Diet Assoc. 107, 441-447. doi: 10.1016/j.jada.2006.12.009
10. Bolado-Gomez, R., and Gurney, K. (2013). A biologically plausible embodied model of action discovery. Front. Neurorobot. 7:4. doi: 10.3389/fnbot.2013.00004
11. Caggiula, A. R., Donny, E. C., Chaudhri, N., Perkins, K. A., Evans-Martin, F., and Sved, A. F. (2002a). Importance of nonpharmacological factors in nicotine self-administration. Physiol. Behav. 77, 683-687. doi: 10.1016/S0031-9384(02) 00918-6
12. Caggiula, A. R., Donny, E. C., White, A. R., Chaudhri, N., Booth, S., Gharib, M. A., et al. (2002b). Environmental stimuli promote the acquisition of nicotine self-administration in rats. Psychopharmacology 163, 230-237. doi: 10.1007/s00213-002-1156-5
13. Caggiula, A. R., Donny, E. C., Palmatier, M. I., Liu, X., Chaudhri, N., and Sved, A. F. (2009). The role of nicotine in smoking: a dual-reinforcement model. Nebr. Symp. Motiv. 55, 91-109. doi: 10.1007/978-0-387-78748-0_6
14. Caggiula, A. R., Donny, E. C., White, A. R., Chaudhri, N., Booth, S., Gharib, M. A., et al. (2001). Cue dependency of nicotine self-administration and smoking. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 70, 515-530. doi: 10.1016/S0091-3057(01) 00676-1
15. Cannon, C. B., and McSweeney, F. K. (1995). Within-session changes in responding when rate and duration of reinforcement vary. Behav. Process. 34, 285-292. doi: 10.1016/0376-6357(95)00009-J
16. Carr, G. D., and White, N. M. (1986). Contributions of dopamine terminal areas to amphetamine-induced anorexia and adipsia. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 25, 17-22. doi: 10.1016/0091-3057(86)90223-6
17. Chaudhri, N., Caggiula, A. R., Donny, E. C., Booth, S., Gharib, M., Craven, L., et al. (2006a). Operant responding for conditioned and unconditioned reinforcers in rats is differentially enhanced by the primary reinforcing and reinforcement-enhancing effects of nicotine. Psychopharmacology 189, 27-36. doi: 10.1007/s00213-006-0522-0
18. Chaudhri, N., Caggiula, A. R., Donny, E. C., Palmatier, M. I., Liu, X., and Sved, A. F. (2006b). Complex interactions between nicotine and nonpharmacological stimuli reveal multiple roles for nicotine in reinforcement. Psychopharmacology 184, 353-366. doi: 10.1007/s00213-005-0178-1
19. Chaudhri, N., Caggiula, A. R., Donny, E. C., Booth, S., Gharib, M., Craven, L., et al. (2007). Self-administered and noncontingent nicotine enhance reinforced operant responding in rats: impact of nicotine dose and reinforcement schedule. Psychopharmacology 190, 353-362. doi: 10.1007/s00213-006-0454-8
20. Corwin, R. L., and Schuster, C. R. (1993). Anorectic specificity as measured in a choice paradigm in rhesus monkeys. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 45, 131-141. doi: 10.1016/0091-3057(93)90096-C
21. Crowder, W. F. (1961). Weak-light reinforcement and flash distribution. J. Psychol. 51, 439-442. doi: 10.1080/00223980.1961.9916495
22. Cunningham, A. B., and Schreibman, L. (2008). Stereotypy in autism: the importance of function. Res. Autism Spectr. Disord. 2, 469-479. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2007.09.006
23. de Araujo, I. E., Ferreira, J. G., Tellez, L. A., Ren, X., and Yeckel, C. W. (2012). The gut-brain dopamine axis: a regulatory system for caloric intake. Physiol. Behav. 106, 394-399. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2012.02.026
24. de Villiers, P. A., and Herrnstein, R. J. (1976). Toward a law of response strength. Psychol. Bull. 83, 1131-1153. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.83.6.1131
25. Donny, E. C., Chaudhri, N., Caggiula, A. R., Evans-Martin, F., Booth, S., Gharib, M. A., et al. (2003a). Operant responding for a visual reinforcer in rats is enhanced by noncontingent nicotine: implications for nicotine self-administration and reinforcement. Psychopharmacology 169, 68-76. doi: 10.1007/s00213-003-1473-3
26. Donny, E. C., Chaudhri, N., Caggiula, A. R., Evans-Martin, F. F., Booth, S., Gharib, M. A., et al. (2003b). Operant responding for a visual reinforcer in rats is enhanced by noncontingent nicotine: implications for nicotine self-administration and reinforcement. Psychopharmacology 169, 68-76. doi: 10.1007/s00213-003-1473-3.
27. Eisenberger, R. (1970). Is there a deprivation-satiation function for social approval? Psychol. Bull. 74, 255-275. doi: 10.1037/h0029797.
28. Eisenberger, R. (1972). Explanation of rewards that do not reduce tissue needs. Psychol. Bull. 77, 319-339. doi: 10.1037/h0032483.
29. Epstein, L. H., Fletcher, K. D., O'Neill, J., Roemmich, J. N., Raynor, H., and Bouton, M. E. (2013). Food characteristics, long-term habituation and energy intake. Laboratory and field studies. Appetite 60, 40-50. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2012.08.030.
30. Epstein, L. H., Robinson, J. L., Roemmich, J. N., and Marusewski, A. (2011). Slowrates of habituation predict greater zBMI gains over 12 months in lean children. Eat. Behav. 12, 214-218. doi: 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2011.05.001
31. Epstein, L. H., Robinson, J. L., Roemmich, J. N., Marusewski, A. L., and Roba, L. G. (2010). What constitutes food variety? Stimulus specificity of food. Appetite 54, 23-29. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2009.09.001
32. Epstein, L. H., Robinson, J. L., Temple, J. L., Roemmich, J. N., Marusewski, A., and Nadbrzuch, R. (2008). Sensitization and habituation of motivated behavior in overweight and non-overweight children. Learn. Motiv. 39, 243-255. doi: 10.1016/j.lmot.2008.03.001
33. Epstein, L. H., Saad, F. G., Handley, E. A., Roemmich, J. N., Hawk, L. W., and McSweeney, F. K. (2003). Habituation of salivation and motivated responding for food in children. Appetite 41, 283-289. doi: 10.1016/S0195-6663(03)00106-5
34. Epstein, L. H., Temple, J. L., Roemmich, J. N., and Bouton, M. E. (2009). Habituation as a determinant of human food intake. Psychol. Rev. 116, 384-407. doi: 10.1037/a0015074
35. Forgays, D. G., and Levin, H. (1961). Learning as a function of change of sensory stimulation: distributed vs. massed trials. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 54, 59-62. doi: 10.1037/h0043396
36. Fox, S. S. (1962). Self-maintained sensory input and sensory deprivation in monkeys: a behavioral and neuropharmacological study. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 55, 438-444. doi: 10.1037/h0041679
37. Gancarz, A. M., Ashrafioun, L., San George, M. A., Hausknecht, K. A., Hawk, L. W. Jr., et al. (2012a). Exploratory studies in sensory reinforcement in male rats: effects of methamphetamine. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 20, 16-27. doi: 10.1037/a0025701
38. Gancarz, A. M., Robble, M. A., Kausch, M. A., Lloyd, D. R., and Richards, J. B. (2012b). Association between locomotor response to novelty and light reinforcement: sensory reinforcement as an animal model of sensation seeking. Behav. Brain Res. 230, 380-388. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2012.02.028
39. Gancarz, A. M., San George, M. A., Ashrafioun, L., and Richards, J. B. (2011). Locomotor activity in a novel environment predicts both responding for a visual stimulus and self-administration of a low dose of methamphetamine in rats. Behav. Process. 86, 295-304. doi: 10.1016/j.beproc.2010. 12.013
40. Glanzer, M. (1953). Stimulus satiation: an explanation of spontaneous alternation and related phenomena. Psychol. Rev. 60, 257-268. doi: 10.1037/h0062718.
41. Glow, P. H., and Russell, A. (1973a). Drug enhanced sensory contingent bar pressing: comparing the effect of contingent and noncontingent sensory change. Psychopharmacologia 32, 285-292. doi: 10.1007/BF00422151
42. Glow, P. H., and Russell, A. (1973b). Effects of dexamphetamine, amylobarbitone sodium and their mixture on sensory contingent bar pressing behaviour in the rat. Psychopharmacologia 31, 239-251. doi: 10.1007/BF00422514.
43. Glow, P. H., and Russell, A. (1974). Sensory-contingent barpressing for familiar and novel change under a dexamphetamine-amylobarbitone mixture. Anim. Learn. Behav. 2, 27-30. doi: 10.3758/BF03199112.
44. Gomer, F. E., and Jakubczak, L. F. (1974). Dose-dependent selective facilitation of response-contingent light-onset behavior by d-amphetamine. Psychopharma-cologia 34, 199-208. doi: 10.1007/BF00421961.
45. Haenlein, M., and Caul, W. F. (1987). Attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity: a specific hypothesis of reward dysfunction. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 26, 356-362. doi: 10.1097/00004583-198705000-00014
46. Helton, W., and Russell, P. (2011). Feature absence-presence and two theories of lapses of sustained attention. Psychol. Res. 75, 384-392. doi: 10.1007/s00426-010-0316-1
47. Herrnstein, R. J. (1974). Formal properties of the matching law. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 21, 159-164. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1974.21-159
48. Heyman, G. M. (1983). A parametric evaluation of the hedonic and motoric effects of drugs: pimozide and amphetamine. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 40, 113-122. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1983.40-113
49. Huang-Pollock, C. L., Karalunas, S. L., Tam, H., and Moore, A. N. (2012). Evaluating vigilance deficits in ADHD: a meta-analysis of CPT performance. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 121, 360-371. doi: 10.1037/a0027205
50. Huang-Pollock, C. L., Nigg, J. T., and Halperin, J. M. (2006). Single dissociation findings of ADHD deficits in vigilance but not anterior or posterior attention systems. Neuropsychology 20, 420-429. doi: 10.1037/0894-4105.20.4.420.
51. Iaboni, F., Douglas, V. I., and Ditto, B. (1997). Psychophysiological response of ADHD children to reward and extinction. Psychophysiology 34, 116-123. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.1997.tb02422.x.
52. Kamin, L. J. (1969). Predictability, surprise, attention, and conditioning, in Punishment and Aversive Behavior, eds R. Church and B. Campbell (New York: Appleton Century Crofts).
53. Kazdin, A. E. (2005). Parent Management Training: Treatment for Oppositional, Aggressive, and Antisocial Behavior in the Children and Adolescents. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
54. Keiflin, R., Isingrini, E., and Cador, M. (2008). Cocaine-induced reinstatement in rats: evidence for a critical role of cocaine stimulus properties. Psychopharmacology 197, 649-660. doi: 10.1007/s00213-008-1083-1.
55. Kenzer, A. L., Ghezzi, P. M., and Fuller, T. (2013). Stimulus specificity and dishabituation of operant responding in humans. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 100, 61-78. doi: 10.1002/jeab.29
56. Kish, G. B. (1966). Studies of sensory reinforcement, in Operant Behavior: Areas of Research and Application, ed. W. Honig (New York, NY: Appletone Century Crofts), 100-159.
57. Konorski, J. J. (1963). Integrative Activity of the Brain. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
58. Kuczenski, R., and Segal, D. S. (1997). Effects of methylphenidate on extracellular dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine: comparison with amphetamine. J. Neurochem. 68, 2032-2037. doi: 10.1046/j.1471-4159.1997.68052032.x.
59. Leaton, R. N., Symmes, D., and Barry, H. I. (1963). Familiarization with the test apparatus as a factor in the reinforcing effect of change in illumination. J. Psychol. 55, 145-151. doi: 10.1080/00223980.1963.9916606.
60. Leddy, J. J., Epstein, L. H., Jaroni, J. L., Roemmich, J. N., Paluch, R. A., Goldfield, G. S., et al. (2004). Influence of methylphenidate on eating in obese men. Obes. Res. 12, 224-232. doi: 10.1038/oby.2004.29
61. Leussis, M. P., and Bolivar, V. J. (2006). Habituation in rodents: a review of behavior, neurobiology, and genetics. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 30, 1045-1064. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2006.03.006
62. Lloyd, D. R., Gancarz, A. M., Ashrafioun, L., Kausch, M. A., and Richards, J. B. (2012a). Habituation and the reinforcing effectiveness of visual stimuli. Behav. Process. 91, 184-191. doi: 10.1016/j.beproc.2012.07.007
63. Lloyd, D. R., Kausch, M. A., Gancarz, A. M., Beyley, L. J., and Richards, J. B. (2012b). Effects of novelty and methamphetamine on conditioned and sensory reinforcement. Behav. Brain Res. 234, 312-322. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2012.07.012.
64. Lloyd, D. R., Hausknecht, K. A., and Richards, J. B. (in press). Nicotine and metham- phetamine disrupt habituation of reinforcer effectiveness in male rats. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. doi: 10.1037/a0034741
65. Lockard, R. B. (1963). Some effects of light upon the behavior of rodents. Psychol. Bull. 60, 509-529. doi: 10.1037/h0046113
66. Lovaas, I., Newsom, C., and Hickman, C. (1987). Self-stimulatory behavior and perceptual reinforcement. J. Appl. Behav. Anal. 20, 45-68. doi: 10.1901/jaba.1987.20-45
67. Luman, M., Oosterlaan, J., and Sergeant, J. A. (2005). The impact of reinforcement contingencies on AD/HD: a review and theoretical appraisal. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 25, 183-213. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2004.11.001
68. Luman, M., Tripp, G., and Scheres, A. (2010). Identifying the neurobiology of altered reinforcement sensitivity in ADHD: a review and research agenda. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 34, 744-754. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.11.021.
69. Mackworth, J. F. (1969). Vigilance and Habituation: A Neuropsychological Approach. London: Penguin books.
70. McCall, R. B. (1966). Initial-consequent-change surface in light-contingent bar pressing. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 62, 35-42. doi: 10.1037/h0023490
71. McSweeney, F. K. (1992). Rate of reinforcement and session duration as determi- nants of within-session patterns of responding. Anim. Learn. Behav. 20, 160-169. doi: 10.3758/BF03200413.
72. McSweeney, F. K., and Hinson, J. M. (1992). Patterns of responding within sessions. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 58, 19-36. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1992.58-19.
73. McSweeney, F. K., Hinson, J. M., and Cannon, C. B. (1996a). Sensitization-habituation may occur during operant conditioning. Psychol. Bull. 120, 256-271. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.120.2.256
74. McSweeney, F. K., Swindell, S., and Weatherly, J. N. (1996b). Within-session changes in responding during concurrent schedules with different reinforcers in the components. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 66, 369-390. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1996.66-369
75. McSweeney, F. K., Weatherly, J. N., and Swindell, S. (1996c). Reinforcer value may change within experimental sessions. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 3, 372-375. doi: 10.3758/BF03210763
76. McSweeney, F. K., Weatherly, J. N., and Swindell, S. (1996d). Within-session changes in responding during delayed matching-to-sample and discrimination procedures. Anim. Learn. Behav. 24, 290-299. doi: 10.3758/BF03198977
77. McSweeney, F. K., Weatherly, J. N., and Swindell, S. (1996e). Within-session changes in responding during variable interval schedules. Behav. Process. 36, 67-75. doi: 10.1016/0376-6357(95)00016-X
78. McSweeney, F. K., and Johnson, K. S. (1994). The effect of time between sessions on within-session patterns of responding. Behav. Process. 31, 207-217. doi: 10.1016/0376-6357(94)90007-8
79. McSweeney, F. K., and Murphy, E. S. (2000). Criticisms of the satiety hypothesis as an explanation for within-session decreases in responding. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 74, 347-361. doi: 10.1901/jeab.2000.74-347
80. McSweeney, F. K., and Murphy, E. S. (2009). Sensitization and habituation regulate reinforcer effectiveness. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 92, 189-198. doi: 10.1016/j.nlm.2008.07.002
81. McSweeney, F. K., and Roll, J. M. (1993). Responding changes systematically within sessions during conditioning procedures. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 60, 621-640. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1993.60-621
82. McSweeney, F. K., and Roll, J. M. (1998). Do animals satiate or habituate to repeatedly presented reinforcers? Psychon. Bull. Rev. 5, 428-442. doi: 10.3758/BF03208818
83. McSweeney, F. K., Roll, J. M., and Cannon, C. B. (1994a). The generality of within-session patterns of responding: rate of reinforcement and session length. Anim. Learn. Behav. 22, 252-266. doi: 10.3758/BF03209833
84. McSweeney, F. K., Roll, J. M., and Weatherly, J. N. (1994b). Within-session changes in responding during several simple schedules. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 62, 109-132. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1994.62-109
85. McSweeney, F. K., Weatherly, J. N., and Roll, J. M. (1995a). Within-session changes in responding during concurrent schedules that employ two different operanda. Anim. Learn. Behav. 23, 237-244. doi: 10.3758/BF03198920
86. McSweeney, F. K., Weatherly, J. N., Roll, J. M., and Swindell, S. (1995b). Within-session patterns of responding when the operandum changes during the session. Learn. Motiv. 26, 403-420. doi: 10.1016/S0023-9690(05)80004-9
87. McSweeney, F. K., Weatherly, J. N., and Swindell, S. (1995c). Prospective factors contribute little to within-session changes in responding. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 2, 234-238. doi: 10.3758/BF03210962
88. McSweeney, F. K., Weatherly, J. N., and Swindell, S. (1995d). Within-session changes in key and lever pressing for water during several multiple variable- interval schedules. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 64, 75-94. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1995. 64-75
89. McSweeney, F. K., Weatherly, J. N., and Swindell, S. (1995e). Within-session response rates when reinforcement rate is changed within each session. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 64, 237-246. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1995.64-237
90. Murphy, E. S., McSweeney, F. K., and Kowal, B. P. (2003). Within-session decreases in operant responding as a function of pre-session feedings. Psychol. Rec. 53, 313-326.
91. Myers Ernst, M., and Epstein, L. H. (2002). Habituation of responding for food in humans. Appetite 38, 224-234. doi: 10.1006/appe.2001.0484
92. Ogden, C. L., Carroll, M. D., Kit, B. K., and Flegal, K. M. (2012). Prevalence of obesity in the United States, 2009-2010. NCHS Data Brief 1-8.
93. Palmatier, M. I., Evans-Martin, F. F., Hoffman, A., Caggiula, A. R., Chaudhri, N., Donny, E. C., et al. (2006). Dissociating the primary reinforcing and reinforcement-enhancing effects of nicotine using a rat self-administration paradigm with concurrently available drug and environmental reinforcers. Psychopharmacology 184, 391-400. doi: 10.1007/s00213-005-0183-4
94. Perkins, K. A., Epstein, L. H., Fonte, C., Mitchell, S. L., and Grobe, J. E. (1995). Gender, dietary restraint, and smoking's influence on hunger and the reinforcing value of food. Physiol. Behav. 57, 675-680. doi: 10.1016/0031-9384(94) 00320-3
95. Premack, D., and Collier, G. (1962). Analysis of nonreinforcement variables affecting response probability. Psychol. Monogr. Gen. Appl. 76, 1-20. doi: 10.1037/h0093810
96. Raiff, B. R., and Dallery, J. (2009). Responding maintained by primary reinforcing visual stimuli is increased by nicotine administration in rats. Behav. Process. 82, 95-99. doi: 10.1016/j.beproc.2009.03.013
97. Rankin, C. H., Abrams, T., Barry, R. J., Bhatnagar, S., Clayton, D. F., Colombo, J., et al. (2009). Habituation revisited: an updated and revised description of the behavioral characteristics of habituation. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 92, 135-138. doi: 10.1016/j.nlm.2008.09.012
98. Rapp, J. T., and Vollmer, T. R. (2005a). Stereotypy I: a review of behavioral assessment and treatment. Res. Dev. Disabil. 26, 527-547. doi: 10.1016/j.ridd.2004.11.005
99. Rapp, J. T., and Vollmer, T. R. (2005b). Stereotypy II: a review of neurobiological interpretations and suggestions for an integration with behavioral methods. Res. Dev. Disabil. 26, 548-564. doi: 10.1016/j.ridd.2004.11.006
100. Redgrave, P., and Gurney, K. (2006). The short-latency dopamine signal: a role in discovering novel actions? Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 7, 967-975. doi: 10.1038/nrn2022
101. Redgrave, P., Gurney, K., and Reynolds, J. (2008). What is rein-forced by phasic dopamine signals? Brain Res. Rev. 58, 322-339. doi: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.10.007
102. Redgrave, P., Vautrelle, N., and Reynolds, J. N. (2011). Functional properties of the basal ganglia's re-entrant loop architecture: selection and reinforcement. Neuroscience 198, 138-151. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.07.060
103. Roberts, C. L., Marx, M. H., and Collier, G. (1958). Light onset and light offset as reinforcers for the albino rat. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 51, 575-579. doi:10.1037/h0042974
104. Roll, J. M., McSweeney, F. K., Johnson, K. S., and Weatherly, J. N. (1995). Satiety contributes little to within-session decreases in responding. Learn. Motiv. 26, 323-341. doi: 10.1016/0023-9690(95)90018-7
105. Sagvolden, T., Johansen, E. B., Aase, H., and Russell, V. A. (2005). A dynamic developmental theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) pre-dominantly hyperactive/impulsive and combined subtypes. Behav. Brain Sci. 28, 397-419.
106. Segal, D. S., and Kuczenski, R. (1999). Escalating dose-binge treatment with methylphenidate: role of serotonin in the emergent behavioral profile. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 291, 19-30.
107. Sheppard, A. B., Gross, S. C., Pavelka, S. A., Hall, M. J., and Palmatier, M. I. (2012). Caffeine increases the motivation to obtain non-drug reinforcers in rats. Drug Alcohol Depend. 124, 216-222. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012. 01.008
108. Sokolov, Y. N. (1963). Perception and the Conditioned Reflex. Oxford: Pergamon Press
109. Sonuga-Barke, E. J. (2011). Editorial: ADHD as a reinforcement disorder-moving from general effects to identifying (six) specific models to test. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 52, 917-918. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02444.x
110. Tapp, J. T. (1969). Activity, reactivity, and the behavior-directing properties of stimuli, in Reinforcement and Behavior, ed. J. T. Tapp (New York: Academic Press), 148-178.
111. Tapp, J. T., and Simpson, L. L. (1966). Motivational and response factors as determinants of the reinforcing value of light onset. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 62, 143-146. doi: 10.1037/h0023501
112. Temple, J. L., Giacomelli, A. M., Kent, K. M., Roemmich, J. N., and Epstein, L. H. (2007a). Television watching increases motivated responding for food and energy intake in children. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 85, 355-361.
113. Temple, J. L., Giacomelli, A. M., Roemmich, J. N., and Epstein, L. H. (2007b). Over-weight children habituate slower than non-overweight children to food. Physiol. Behav. 91, 250-254. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.03.009
114. Temple, J. L., Giacomelli, A. M., Roemmich, J. N., and Epstein, L. H. (2008a). Dietary variety impairs habituation in children. Health Psychol. 27, S10-S19. doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.27.1.S10
115. Temple, J. L., Giacomelli, A. M., Roemmich, J. N., and Epstein, L. H. (2008b). Habituation and within-session changes in motivated respond-ing for food in children. Appetite 50, 390-396. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2007.09.005
116. Thompson, R. F., and Spencer, W. A. (1966). Habituation: a model phenomenon for the study of neuronal substrates of behavior. Psychol. Rev. 73, 16-43. doi: 10.1037/h0022681
117. Tripp, G., and Wickens, J. (2012). Reinforcement, dopamine and rodent models in drug development for ADHD. Neurotherapeutics 9, 622-634. doi: 10.1007/s13311-012-0132-y
118. Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., Fowler, J. S., and Ding, Y. S. (2005). Imaging the effects of methylphenidate on brain dopamine: new model on its therapeutic actions for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 57, 1410-1415. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.11.006
119. Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., Fowler, J. S., Telang, F., Maynard, L., Logan, J., et al. (2004). Evidence that methylphenidate enhances the saliency of a mathematical task by increasing dopamine in the human brain. Am. J. Psychiatry 161, 1173-1180. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.161.7.1173
120. Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., Fowler, J. S., Thanos, P. P., Logan, J., Gatley, S. J., et al. (2002). Brain DA D2 receptors predict reinforcing effects of stimulants in humans: replication study. Synapse 46, 79-82. doi: 10.1002/syn.10137
121. Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., Kollins, S. H., Wigal, T. L., Newcorn, J. H., Telang, F., et al. (2009). Evaluating dopamine reward pathway in ADHD: clinical implications. JAMA 302, 1084-1091. doi: 10.1001/jama.2009.1308
122. Wagner, A. R. (1979). Habituation and memory, in Mechanisms of Learning and Memory: A Memorial Volume to Jerzy Konorski, eds A. Dickenson and R. A. Boakes (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum).
123. Weatherly, J. N., and McSweeney, F. K. (1995). Within-session response patterns when rats press levers for water: effects of component stimuli and experimental environment. Behav. Process. 34, 141-152. doi: 10.1016/0376-6357(94)00061-K
124. Weatherly, J. N., McSweeney, F. K., and Swindell, S. (1995). On the contributions of responding and reinforcement to within-session patterns of responding. Learn. Motiv. 26, 421-432. doi: 10.1016/S0023-9690(05)80005-0
125. Weatherly, J. N., McSweeney, F. K., and Swindell, S. (1996). Within-session response patterns on conjoint variable-interval variable-time schedules. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 66, 205-218. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1996.66-205.
126. Winterbauer, N. E., and Balleine, B. W. (2007). The influence of amphetamine on sensory and conditioned reinforcement: evidence for the re-selection hypothesis of dopamine function. Front. Integr. Neurosci. 1:9. doi: 10.3389/neuro.07.009.2007
127. Wisniewski, L., Epstein, L. H., and Caggiula, A. R. (1992). Effect of food change on consumption, hedonics, and salivation. Physiol. Behav. 52, 21-26. doi: 10.1016/0031-9384(92)90428-5
128. Zuvekas, S. H., and Vitiello, B. (2012). Stimulant medication use in children: a 12-year perspective. Am. J. Psychiatry 169, 160-166. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11030387