Therapeutic options for old world cutaneous leishmaniasis and new world cutaneous and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis

Drugs

Volumn 73, Issue 17, 2013, Pages 1889-1920

  Monge Maillo, Begonã ^a   López Vélez, Rogelio ^a  

^a HOSPITAL RAMÓN Y CAJAL   (Spain)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMPHOTERICIN B; AMPHOTERICIN B DEOXYCHOLATE; AZITHROMYCIN; IMIDAZOLE; MILTEFOSINE; NITRIC OXIDE; PAROMOMYCIN; PENTAMIDINE; PENTAMIDINE ISETHIONATE; PYRROLE;

AMERICAN LEISHMANIASIS; CARBON DIOXIDE LASER; CLINICAL FEATURE; CRYOTHERAPY; DRUG FORMULATION; GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION; HUMAN; HYPERTHERMIC THERAPY; IMMUNOTHERAPY; LEISHMANIA; LEISHMANIASIS; MOUTH MUCOSA; NOSE MUCOSA; PHOTODYNAMIC THERAPY; PHYSIOTHERAPY; REVIEW; SKIN LEISHMANIASIS; SYSTEMIC THERAPY;

ANIMALS; ANTIPROTOZOAL AGENTS; CRYOTHERAPY; HUMANS; IMMUNOTHERAPY; LEISHMANIASIS, CUTANEOUS; LEISHMANIASIS, MUCOCUTANEOUS; PENTAMIDINE;

EID: 84892566955     PISSN: 00126667     EISSN: 11791950     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s40265-013-0132-1     Document Type: Review

References (180)

1. World Health Organization. Control of the leishmaniases. World Health Organization Technical Report Series. 2010;(949):xii-xiii, 1-186, back cover.
2. Asilian A, Jalayer T, Whitworth JA, Ghasemi RL, Nilforoosh-zadeh M, Olliaro P. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of a two-week regimen of aminosidine (paromomycin) ointment for treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Iran. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1995;53:648-51.
3. Zakraoui H, Ben Salah A, Ftaiti A, et al. Spontaneous course of lesions of leishmania major cutaneous leishmaniasis in Tunisia. Ann Dermatol Venereol. 1995;122:405-7.
4. Ben Salah A, Zakraoui H, Zaatour A, et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial in Tunisia treating cutaneous leish-maniasis with paromomycin ointment. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1995;53:162-6.
5. Palacios R, Osorio LE, Grajalew LF, Ochoa MT. Treatment failure in children in a randomized clinical trial with 10 and 20 days of meglumine antimoniate for cutaneous leishmaniasis due to Leishmania viannia species. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2001;64:187-93.
6. Soto J, Berman J. Treatment of new world cutaneous leish-maniasis with miltefosine. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2006;100(Suppl 1):S34-40.
7. Blum J, et al. Local or systemic treatment for new world cutaneous leishmaniasis? re-evaluating the evidence for the risk of mucosal leishmaniasis. Int Health. 2012;4:153-63.
8. World Health Organization. WHO technical report series. Control of the leishmaniases. Report of a meeting of the WHO expert committee on the control of leishmaniasis, Geneva, 2010. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/WHO-TRS-949-eng.pdf.
9. Alvar J, Velez ID, Bern C, et al. Leishmaniasis worldwide and global estimates of its incidence. PLoS One. 2012;7:e35671.
10. Khan AR, Khan S, Zimmerman V, Baddour LM, Tleyjeh IM. Quality and strength of evidence of the infectious diseases society of America clinical practice guidelines. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:1147-56.
11. Kish MA. Infectious Diseases Society of America. Guide to development of practice guidelines. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;32:851-4.
12. Reithinger R, Mohsen M, Wahid M, et al. Efficacy of thermo-therapy to treat cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania tropica in Kabul, Afghanistan: a randomized, controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;40:1148-55.
13. Sadeghian G, Nilfroushzadeh MA, Iraji F. Efficacy of local heat therapy by radiofrequency in the treatment of cutaneous leish-maniasis, compared with intralesional injection of meglumine antimoniate. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2007;32:371-4.
14. Aronson NE, Wortmann GW, Byrne WR, et al. A randomized controlled trial of local heat therapy versus intravenous sodium stibogluconate for the treatment of cutaneous leishmania major infection. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2010;4:e628.
15. Asilian A, Sharif A, Faghihi G, Enshaeieh S, Shariati F, Siadat AH. Evaluation of CO laser efficacy in the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis. Int J Dermatol. 2004;43:736-8.
16. Shamsi Meymandi S, Zandi S, Aghaie H, Heshmatkhah A. Efficacy of CO(2) laser for treatment of anthroponotic cutaneous leishmaniasis, compared with combination of cryotherapy and intralesional meglumine antimoniate. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2011;25:587-91.
17. Asilian A, Davami M. Comparison between the efficacy of photodynamic therapy and topical paromomycin in the treatment of old world cutaneous leishmaniasis: a placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2006;31:634-7.
18. Bassiouny A, El Meshad M, Talaat M, Kutty K, Metawaa B. Cryosurgery in cutaneous leishmaniasis. Br J Dermatol. 1982;107:467-74.
19. Leibovici V, Aram H. Cryotherapy in acute cutaneous leish-maniasis. Int J Dermatol. 1986;25:473-5.
20. Mosleh IM, Geith E, Natsheh L, Schonian G, Abotteen N, Kharabsheh S. Efficacy of a weekly cryotherapy regimen to treat leishmania major cutaneous leishmaniasis. J Am Acad Derma-tol. 2008;58:617-24.
21. al-Majali O, Routh HB, Abuloham O, Bhowmik KR, Muhsen M, Hebeheba H. A 2-year study of liquid nitrogen therapy in cutaneous leishmaniasis. Int J Dermatol. 1997;36:460-2.
22. Panagiotopoulos A, Stavropoulos PG, Hasapi V, Papakonstan-tinou AM, Petridis A, Katsambas A. Treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis with cryosurgery. Int J Dermatol. 2005;44:749-52.
23. Gurei MS, Tatli N, Ozbilge H, et al. Efficacy of cryotherapy and intralesional pentostam in treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis. J Egypt Soc Parasitol. 2000;30:169-76.
24. Salmanpour R, Razmavar MR, Abtahi N. Comparison of int-ralesional meglumine antimoniate, cryotherapy and their combination in the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis. Int J Dermatol. 2006;45:1115-6.
25. Asilian A, Sadeghinia A, Faghihi G, Momeni A, Amini Harandi A. The efficacy of treatment with intralesional meglumine an-timoniate alone, compared with that of cryotherapy combined with the meglumine antimoniate or intralesional sodium stibo-gluconate, in the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2003;97:493-8.
26. Asilian A, Sadeghinia A, Faghihi G, Momeni A. Comparative study of the efficacy of combined cryotherapy and intralesional meglumine antimoniate (glucantime) vs. cryotherapy and int-ralesional meglumine antimoniate (glucantime) alone for the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis. Int J Dermatol. 2004;43:281-3.
27. el Darouti MA, al Rubaie SM. Cutaneous leishmaniasis. Treatment with combined cryotherapy and intralesional stibogluco-nate injection. Int J Dermatol. 1990;29:56-9.
28. Jowkar F, Dehghani F, Jamshidzadeh A. Is topical nitric oxide and cryotherapy more effective than cryotherapy in the treatment of old world cutaneous leishmaniasis? J Dermatolog Treat. 2012;23:131-5.
29. Layegh P, Pezeshkpoor F, Soruri AH, Naviafar P, Moghiman T. Efficacy of cryotherapy versus intralesional meglumine anti-moniate (glucantime) for treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis in children. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2009;80:172-5.
30. Ranawaka RR, Weerakoon HS, Opathella N. Liquid nitrogen cryotherapy on Leishmania donovani cutaneous leishmaniasis. J Dermatolog Treat. 2011;22:241-5.
31. Reithinger R, Dujardin JC, Louzir H, Pirmez C, Alexander B, Brooker S. Cutaneous leishmaniasis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2007;7:581-96.
32. Navin TR, Arana BA, Arana FE, de Merida AM, Castillo AL, Pozuelos JL. Placebo-controlled clinical trial of meglumine antimonate (glucantime) vs. localized controlled heat in the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Guatemala. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1990;42:43-50.
33. López L, Robayo M, Vargas M, Velez I. Thermotherapy. An alternative for the treatment of american cutaneous leishmani-asis. Trials. 2012;13:58.
34. Vega JC, Sanchez BF, Montero LM, et al. The efficacy of thermotherapy to treat cutaneous leishmaniasis in Colombia: a comparative observational study in an operational setting. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2009;103:703-6.
35. Lopez-Jaramillo P, Ruano C, Rivera J, et al. Treatmentofcutaneous leishmaniasis with nitric-oxide donor. Lancet. 1998;351:1176-7.
36. Lopez-Jaramillo P, Rincon MY, Garcia RG, et al. A controlled, randomized-blinded clinical trial to assess the efficacy of a nitric oxide releasing patch in the treatment of cutaneous leishmani-asis by Leishmania (V.) panamensis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2010;83:97-101.
37. el-Safi SH, Murphy AG, Bryceson AD, Neal RA. A doubleblind clinical trial of the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis with paromomycin ointment. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1990;84:690-1.
38. el-On J, Halevy S, Grunwald MH, Weinrauch L. Topical treatment of old world cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by leishmania major: a double-blind control study. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1992;27:227-31.
39. Asilian A, Jalayer T, Nilforooshzadeh M, et al. Treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis with aminosidine (paromomycin) ointment: double-blind, randomized trial in the Islamic Republic of Iran. Bull World Health Organ. 2003;81:353-9.
40. Iraji F, Sadeghinia A. Efficacy of paromomycin ointment in the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis: results of a double-blind, randomized trial in Isfahan, Iran. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2005;99:3-9.
41. Faghihi G, Tavakoli-kia R. Treatment of cutaneous leishmani-asis with either topical paromomycin or intralesional meglumine antimoniate. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2003;28:13-6.
42. Shazad B, Abbaszadeh B, Khamesipour A. Comparison of topical paromomycin sulfate (twice/day) with intralesional meglumine antimoniate for the treatment of cutaneous leish-maniasis caused by L. major. Eur J Dermatol. 2005;15:85-7.
43. Ben Salah A, Buffet PA, Morizot G, et al. WR279, 396, a third generation aminoglycoside ointment for the treatment of leish-mania major cutaneous leishmaniasis: a phase 2, randomized, double blind, placebo controlled study. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2009;3:e432.
44. Alkhawajah AM, Larbi E, al-Gindan Y, Abahussein A, Jain S. Treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis with antimony: intramuscular versus intralesional administration. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 1997;91:899-905.
45. Tallab TM, Bahamdam KA, Mirdad S, et al. Cutaneous leish-maniasis: schedules for intralesional treatment with sodium stibogluconate. Int J Dermatol. 1996;35:594-7.
46. Sharquie KE, Al-Talib KK, Chu AC. Intralesional therapy of cutaneous leishmaniasis with sodium stibogluconate antimony. Br J Dermatol. 1988;119:53-7.
47. Kellum RE. Treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis with an int-ralesional antimonial drug (pentostam). J Am Acad Dermatol. 1986;15:620-2.
48. Uzun S, Durdu M, Culha G, Allahverdiyev AM, Memisoglu HR. Clinical features, epidemiology, and efficacy and safety of int-ralesional antimony treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis: recent experience in Turkey. J Parasitol. 2004;90:853-9.
49. Chahed MK, Ben Salah A, Louzir H, et al. Efficacy of intra-lesional glucantime in the treatment of zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis in basic health care conditions. Arch Inst Pasteur Tunis. 1999;76:13-8.
50. Harms G, Chehade AK, Douba M, et al. A randomized trial comparing a pentavalent antimonial drug and recombinant interferon-gamma in the local treatment of cutaneous leish-maniasis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1991;85:214-6.
51. Ranawaka RR, Weerakoon HS. Randomized, double-blind, comparative clinical trial on the efficacy and safety of intrale-sional sodium stibogluconate and intralesional 7% hypertonic sodium chloride against cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by L. donovani. J Dermatolog Treat. 2010;21:286-93.
52. Bumb RA, Mehta RD, Ghiya BC, et al. Efficacy of short-duration (twice weekly) intralesional sodium stibogluconate in treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis in India. Br J Dermatol. 2010;163:854-8.
53. Munir A, Janjua SA, Hussain I. Clinical efficacy of intramuscular meglumine antimoniate alone and in combination with intralesional meglumine antimoniate in the treatment of old world cutaneous leishmaniasis. Acta Dermatovenerol Croat. 2008;16:60-4.
54. El-Sayed M, Anwar AE. Intralesional sodium stibogluconate alone or its combination with either intramuscular sodium stibogluconate or oral ketoconazole in the treatment of localized cutaneous leishmaniasis: a comparative study. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2010;24:335-40.
55. van Thiel PP, Leenstra T, de Vries HJ, et al. Cutaneous leish-maniasis (leishmania major infection) in Dutch troops deployed in northern Afghanistan: epidemiology, clinical aspects, and treatment. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2010;83:1295-300.
56. Aste N, Pau M, Ferreli C, Biggio P. Intralesional treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis with meglumine antimoniate. Br J Dermatol. 1998;138:370-1.
57. Masmoudi A, Maalej N, Boudaya S, Turki H, Zahaf A. Adverse effects of intralesional glucantime in the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniosis. Med Mal Infect. 2006;36:226-8.
58. Singh S, Sivakumar R. Challenges and new discoveries in the treatment of leishmaniasis. J Infect Chemother. 2004;10:307-15.
59. Larbi EB, al-Khawajah A, al-Gindan Y, Jain S, Abahusain A, al-Zayer A. A randomized, double-blind, clinical trial of topical clotrimazole versus miconazole for treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis in the eastern province of Saudi Arabia. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1995;52:166-8.
60. Storer E, Wayte J. Cutaneous leishmaniasis in Afghani refugees. Australas J Dermatol. 2005;46:80-3.
61. Krause G, Kroeger A. Topical treatment of American cutaneous leishmaniasis with paramomycin and methylbenzethonium chloride: a clinical study under field conditions in Ecuador. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1994;88:92-4.
62. Arana BA, Mendoza CE, Rizzo NR, Kroeger A. Randomized, controlled, double-blind trial of topical treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis with paromomycin plus methylbenzethonium chloride ointment in Guatemala. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2001;65:466-70.
63. Armijos RX, Weigel MM, Calvopina M, Mancheno M, Rodriguez R. Comparison of the effectiveness of two topical paro-momycin treatments versus meglumine antimoniate for new world cutaneous leishmaniasis. Acta Trop. 2004;91:153-60.
64. Neva FA, Ponce C, Ponce E, Kreutzer R, Modabber F, Olliaro P. Non-ulcerative cutaneous leishmaniasis in Honduras fails to respond to topical paromomycin. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1997;91:473-5.
65. Soto J, Fuya P, Herrera R, Berman J. Topical paromomycin/ methylbenzethonium chloride plus parenteral meglumine antimonate as treatment for American cutaneous leishmaniasis: controlled study. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;26:56-8.
66. Soto J, Hernandez N, Mejia H, Grogl M, Berman J. Successful treatment of new world cutaneous leishmaniasis with a combination of topical paromomycin/methylbenzethonium chloride and injectable meglumine antimonate. Clin Infect Dis. 1995;20:47-51.
67. Oliveira-Neto MP, Schubach A, Mattos M, da Costa SC, Pirmez C. Intralesional therapy of American cutaneous leishmaniasis with pentavalent antimony in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil-an area of Leishmania (V.) braziliensis transmission. Int J Dermatol. 1997;36(6):463-8.
68. Soto J, Rojas E, Guzman M, et al. Intralesional antimony for single lesions of bolivian cutaneous leishmaniasis. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56:1255-60.
69. Alrajhi AA, Ibrahim EA, De Vol EB, Khairat M, Faris RM, Maguire JH. Fluconazole for the treatment of cutaneous leish-maniasis caused by Leishmania major. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:891-5.
70. Emad M, Hayati F, Fallahzadeh MK, Namazi MR. Superior efficacy of oral fluconazole 400 mg daily versus oral fluconazole 200 mg daily in the treatment of cutaneous leishmania major infection: a randomized clinical trial. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2011;64:606-8.
71. Salmanpour R, Handjani F, Nouhpisheh MK. Comparative study of the efficacy of oral ketoconazole with intra-lesional meglu-mine antimoniate (glucantime) for the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis. J Dermatolog Treat. 2001;12:159-62.
72. Ozgoztasi O, Baydar I. A randomized clinical trial of topical paromomycin versus oral ketoconazole for treating cutaneous leishmaniasis in Turkey. Int J Dermatol. 1997;36:61-3.
73. Alsaleh QA, Dvorak R, Nanda A. Ketoconazole in the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Kuwait. Int J Dermatol. 1995;34:495-7.
74. Dogra J, Aneja N, Lal BB, Mishra SN. Cutaneous leishmaniasis in India. Clinical experience with itraconazole (R51 211 Janssen). Int J Dermatol. 1990;29:661-2.
75. Momeni AZ, Jalayer T, Emamjomeh M, et al. Treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis with itraconazole. Randomized doubleblind study. Arch Dermatol. 1996;132:784-6.
76. Nassiri-Kashani M, Firooz A, Khamesipour A, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial of itr-aconazole in the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2005;19:80-3.
77. Paniz Mondolfi AE, Stavropoulos C, Gelanew T, et al. Successful treatment of old world cutaneous leishmaniasis due to L. infantum with posaconazole. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2011;55:1774-6.
78. Dorlo TP, van Thiel PP, Schoone GJ, et al. Dynamics of parasite clearance in cutaneous leishmaniasis patients treated with mil-tefosine. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2011;5:e1436.
79. Stojkovic M, Junghanss T, Krause E, Davidson RN. First case of typical old world cutaneous leishmaniasis treated with miltefo-sine. Int J Dermatol. 2007;46:385-7.
80. Mohebali M, Fotouhi A, Hooshmand B, et al. Comparison of miltefosine and meglumine antimoniate for the treatment of zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis (ZCL) by a randomized clinical trial in Iran. Acta Trop. 2007;103:33-40.
81. Keynan Y, Larios OE, Wiseman MC, Plourde M, Ouellette M, Rubinstein E. Use of oral miltefosine for cutaneous leishmani-asis in Canadian soldiers returning from Afghanistan. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol. 2008;19:394-6.
82. Neub A, Krahl D, Stich A, Amon U. Cutaneous infection with leishmania infantum in an infant treated successfully with mil-tefosine. J Dtsch Dermatol Ges. 2008;6:1061-4.
83. Saenz RE, Paz H, Berman JD. Efficacy of ketoconazole against Leishmania braziliensis panamensis cutaneous leishmaniasis. Am J Med. 1990;89:147-55.
84. Navin TR, Arana BA, Arana FE, Berman JD, Chajon JF. Placebo-controlled clinical trial of sodium stibogluconate (pento-stam) versus ketoconazole for treating cutaneous leishmaniasis in Guatemala. J Infect Dis. 1992;165:528-34.
85. Soto-Mancipe J, Grogl M, Berman JD. Evaluation of pentami-dine for the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Colombia. Clin Infect Dis. 1993;16:417-25.
86. Soto J, Arana BA, Toledo J, et al. Miltefosine for new world cutaneous leishmaniasis. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;38:1266-72.
87. Soto J, Toledo J, Gutierrez P, et al. Treatment of American cutaneous leishmaniasis with miltefosine, an oral agent. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;33:E57-61.
88. Velez I, Lopez L, Sanchez X, Mestra L, Rojas C, Rodriguez E. Efficacy of miltefosine for the treatment of American cutaneous leishmaniasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2010;83:351-6.
89. Soto J, Rea J, Balderrama M, et al. Efficacy of miltefosine for Bolivian cutaneous leishmaniasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2008;78:210-1.
90. Machado PR, Ampuero J, Guimaraes LH, et al. Miltefosine in the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by leishmania braziliensis in Brazil: a randomized and controlled trial. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2010;4:e912.
91. Chrusciak-Talhari A, Dietze R, Chrusciak Talhari C, et al. Randomized controlled clinical trial to access efficacy and safety of miltefosine in the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania (Viannia) guyanensis in Manaus, Brazil. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2011;84:255-60.
92. Harms G, Scherbaum H, Reiter-Owona I, Stich A, Richter J. Treatment of imported new world cutaneous leishmaniasis in Germany. Int J Dermatol. 2011;50:1336-42.
93. Sanchez-Canete MP, Carvalho L, Perez-Victoria FJ, Gamarro F, Castanys S. Low plasma membrane expression of the miltefo-sine transport complex renders leishmania braziliensis refractory to the drug. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009;53:1305-13.
94. Rubiano LC, Miranda MC, Muvdi Arenas S, et al. Noninferi-ority of miltefosine versus meglumine antimoniate for cutaneous leishmaniasis in children. J Infect Dis. 2012;205:684-92.
95. Krolewiecki A, Leon S, Scott P, Abraham D. Activity of azithromycin against leishmania major in vitro and in vivo. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2002;67:273-7.
96. Prata A, Silva-Vergara ML, Costa L, et al. Efficacy of azithro-mycin in the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2003;36:65-9.
97. Silva-Vergara ML, Silva Lde A, Maneira FR, da Silva AG, Prata A. Azithromycin in the treatment of mucosal leishmaniasis. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 2004;46:175-7.
98. Velez I, Agudelo S, Hendrickx E, et al. Inefficacy of allopurinol as monotherapy for Colombian cutaneous leishmaniasis. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 1997;126:232-6.
99. Martinez S, Marr JJ. Allopurinol in the treatment of American cutaneous leishmaniasis. N Engl J Med. 1992;326:741-4.
100. Guderian RH, Chico ME, Rogers MD, Pattishall KM, Grogl M, Berman JD. Placebo controlled treatment of Ecuadorian cutaneous leishmaniasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1991;45:92-7.
101. Herwaldt BL, Berman JD. Recommendations for treating leishmaniasis with sodium stibogluconate (pentostam) and review of pertinent clinical studies. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1992;46:296-306.
102. Mebrahtu YB, Lawyer PG, Ngumbi PM, et al. A new rural focus of cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by leishmania tropica in Kenya. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1992;86:381-7.
103. el-Safi SH, Peters W, el-Toam B, el-Kadarow A, Evans DA. Studies on the leishmaniases in the Sudan. 2. Clinical and par-asitological studies on cutaneous leishmaniasis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1991; 85: 457-64.
104. Firdous R, Yasinzai M, Ranja K. Efficacy of glucantime in the treatment of old world cutaneous leishmaniasis. Int J Dermatol. 2009;48:758-62.
105. Firooz A, Khamesipour A, Ghoorchi MH, et al. Imiquimod in combination with meglumine antimoniate for cutaneous leish-maniasis: a randomized assessor-blind controlled trial. Arch Dermatol. 2006;142:1575-9.
106. Zerehsaz F, Salmanpour R, Handjani F, et al. A double-blind randomized clinical trial of a topical herbal extract (Z-HE) vs. systemic meglumine antimoniate for the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Iran. Int J Dermatol. 1999;38:610-2.
107. Belazzoug S, Neal RA. Failure of meglumine antimoniate to cure cutaneous lesions due to leishmania major in Algeria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1986;80:670-1.
108. Layegh P, Rahsepar S, Rahsepar AA. Systemic meglumine an-timoniate in acute cutaneous leishmaniasis: children versus adults. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2011;84:539-42.
109. Esfandiarpour I, Alavi A. Evaluating the efficacy of allopurinol and meglumine antimoniate (glucantime) in the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis. Int J Dermatol. 2002;41:521-4.
110. Momeni AZ, Reiszadae MR, Aminjavaheri M. Treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis with acombinationofallopurinol and low-dose meglumine antimoniate. Int J Dermatol. 2002;41:441-3.
111. Sadeghian G, Nilforoushzadeh MA. Effect of combination therapy with systemic glucantime and pentoxifylline in the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis. Int J Dermatol. 2006;45:819-21.
112. Torre-Cisneros J, Prada JL, Villanueva JL, Valverde F, Sanchez-Guijo P. Successful treatment of antimony-resistant cutaneous leishmaniasis with liposomal amphotericin B. Clin Infect Dis. 1994;18:1024-5.
113. del Rosal T, Artigao FB, Miguel MJ, de Lucas R, del Castillo F. Successful treatment of childhood cutaneous leishmaniasis with liposomal amphotericin B: report of two cases. J Trop Pediatr. 2010;56:122-4.
114. Rongioletti F, Cannata GE, Parodi A. Leishmaniasis due to L. infantum presenting as macrocheilitis and responding to lipo-somal amphotericin B. Eur J Dermatol. 2009;19:281-2.
115. Rapp C, Imbert P, Darie H, et al. Liposomal amphotericin B treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis contracted in Djibouti and resistant to meglumine antimoniate. Bull Soc Pathol Exot. 2003;96:209-11.
116. Paradisi A, Capizzi R, Zampetti A, et al. Atypical multifocal cutaneous leishmaniasis in an immunocompetent patient treated by liposomal amphotericin B. J Infect. 2005;51:e261-4.
117. Solomon M, Pavlotsky F, Leshem E, Ephros M, Trau H, Schwartz E. Liposomal amphotericin B treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis due to leishmania tropica. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2011;25:973-7.
118. Wortmann G, Zapor M, Ressner R, et al. Lipsosomal ampho-tericin B for treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2010;83:1028-33.
119. Soto J, Valda-Rodriquez L, Toledo J, et al. Comparison of generic to branded pentavalent antimony for treatment of new world cutaneous leishmaniasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2004;71:577-81.
120. Soto J, Toledo J, Vega J, Berman J. Short report: efficacy of pentavalent antimony for treatment of Colombian cutaneous leishmaniasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2005;72:421-2.
121. Andersen EM, Cruz-Saldarriaga M, Llanos-Cuentas A, et al. Comparison of meglumine antimoniate and pentamidine for Peruvian cutaneous leishmaniasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2005;72:133-7.
122. Pradinaud R, Girardeau I, Sainte-Marie D. A pentamidina, excelente terapeutica da leishmaniose cutanea. Esquema de tra-tamiento idealizado na Guiana Francesa em dose unica. An Bras Dermatol. 1985;60:385-7.
123. Arevalo J, Ramirez L, Adaui V, et al. Influence of leishmania (viannia) species on the response to antimonial treatment in patients with American tegumentary leishmaniasis. J Infect Dis. 2007;195:1846-51.
124. Vargas-Gonzalez A, Canto-Lara SB, Damian-Centeno AG, Andrade-Narvaez FJ. Response of cutaneous leishmaniasis (chiclero's ulcer) to treatment with meglumine antimoniate in southeast Mexico. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1999;61:960-3.
125. Romero GA, Guerra MV, Paes MG, Macedo VO. Comparison of cutaneous leishmaniasis due to Leishmania (viannia) bra-ziliensis and L. (V.) guyanensis in Brazil: therapeutic response to meglumine antimoniate. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2001;65:456-65.
126. Ballou WR, McClain JB, Gordon DM, et al. Safety and efficacy of high-dose sodium stibogluconate therapy of American cutaneous leishmaniasis. Lancet. 1987;2:13-6.
127. Arana BA, Navin TR, Arana FE, Berman JD, Rosenkaimer F. Efficacy of a short course (10 days) of high-dose meglumine antimonate with or without interferon-gamma in treating cutaneous leishmaniasis in Guatemala. Clin Infect Dis. 1994;18:381-4.
128. Wortmann G, Miller RS, Oster C, Jackson J, Aronson N. A randomized, double-blind study of the efficacy of a 10-or 20-day course of sodium stibogluconate for treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis in United States military personnel. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;35:261-7.
129. Organización panamericana de la salud. Tratamiento de las enfermedades parasitarias. In Guía para el Tratamiento de las enfermedades infecciosas 2013-2014. Washington, DC: OPS; 2013. p. 212-3.
130. Miranda-Verástegui C, Llanos-Cuentas A, Arevalo I, Ward BJ, Matlashewski G. Randomized, double-blind clinical trial of topical imiquimod 5% with parenteral meglumine antimoniate in the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Peru. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;40:1395-403.
131. Machado-Pinto J, Pinto J, da Costa CA, et al. Immunochemo-therapy for cutaneous leishmaniasis: a controlled trial using killed leishmania (leishmania) amazonensis vaccine plus anti-monial. Int J Dermatol. 2002;41:73-8.
132. Convit J, Ulrich M, Zerpa O, et al. Immunotherapy of American cutaneous leishmaniasis in Venezuela during the period 1990-99. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2003;97:469-72.
133. Brown M, Noursadeghi M, Boyle J, Davidson RN. Successful liposomal amphotericin B treatment of Leishmania braziliensis cutaneous leishmaniasis. Br J Dermatol. 2005;153:203-5.
134. Konecny P, Stark DJ. An Australian case of new world cutaneous leishmaniasis. Med J Aust. 2007;186:315-7.
135. Solomon M, Baum S, Barzilai A, Scope A, Trau H, Schwartz E. Liposomal amphotericin B in comparison to sodium stiboglu-conate for cutaneous infection due to Leishmania braziliensis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2007;56:612-6.
136. Solomon M, Pavlotzky F, Barzilai A, Schwartz E. Liposomal amphotericin B in comparison to sodium stibogluconate for Leishmania braziliensis cutaneous leishmaniasis in travelers. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2013;68:284-9.
137. Motta JO, Sampaio RN. A pilot study comparing low-dose liposomal amphotericin B with N-methyl glucamine for the treatment of American cutaneous leishmaniasis. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2012;26:331-5.
138. Minodier P, Noel G, Blanc P, Uters M, Retornaz K, Garnier JM. Management of cutaneous leishmaniasis in adults and children. Med Trop (Mars). 2005;65:487-95.
139. Minodier P, Parola P. Cutaneous leishmaniasis treatment. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2007;5:150-8.
140. de Paula CD, Sampaio JH, Cardoso DR, Sampaio RN. A comparative study between the efficacy of pentamidine isothionate given in three doses for one week and N-methil-glucamine in a dose of 20mgSbV/day for 20 days to treat cutaneous leish-maniasis. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2003;36:365-71.
141. Lai A, Fat EJ, Vrede MA, Soetosenojo RM, Lai A, Fat RF. Pentamidine, the drug of choice for the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Surinam. Int J Dermatol. 2002;41:796-800.
142. Neves LO, Talhari AC, Gadelha EP, et al. A randomized clinical trial comparing meglumine antimoniate, pentamidine and amphotericin B for the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis by Leishmania guyanensis. An Bras Dermatol. 2011;86:1092-101.
143. Soto J, Buffet P, Grogl M, Berman J. Successful treatment of Colombian cutaneous leishmaniasis with four injections of pentamidine. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1994;50:107-11.
144. Soto J, Grogl M, Berman J, Olliaro P. Limited efficacy of injectable aminosidine as single-agent therapy for Colombian cutaneous leishmaniasis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1994;88:695-8.
145. Hepburn NC, Tidman MJ, Hunter JA. Aminosidine (paromo-mycin) versus sodium stibogluconate for the treatment of American cutaneous leishmaniasis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1994;88:700-3.
146. Correia D, Macedo VO, Carvalho EM, et al. Comparative study of meglumine antimoniate, pentamidine isethionate and ami-nosidine sulfate in the treatment of primary skin lesions caused by Leishmania (viannia) braziliensis. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 1996;29:447-53.
147. Amato VS, Padilha AR, Nicodemo AC, et al. Use of itraco-nazole in the treatment of mucocutaneous leishmaniasis: a pilot study. Int J Infect Dis. 2000;4:153-7.
148. Calvopina M, Guevara AG, Armijos RX, Hashiguchi Y, Davidson RN, Cooper PJ. Itraconazole in the treatment of new world mucocutaneous leishmaniasis. Int J Dermatol. 2004;43:659-63.
149. Rodriguez LV, Dedet JP, Paredes V, Mendoza C, Cardenas F. A randomized trial of amphotericin B alone or in combination with itraconazole in the treatment of mucocutaneous leishmaniasis. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 1995;90:525-8.
150. Soto J, Toledo J, Valda L, et al. Treatment of Bolivian mucosal leishmaniasis with miltefosine. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:350-6.
151. Soto J, Rea J, Valderrama M, et al. Efficacy of extended (six weeks) treatment with miltefosine for mucosal leishmaniasis in Bolivia. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2009;81:387-9.
152. Amato V, Amato J, Nicodemo A, Uip D, Amato-Neto V, Duarte M. Treatment of mucocutaneous leishmaniasis with pentamidine isothionate. Ann Dermatol Venereol. 1998;125:492-5.
153. Amato VS, de Paula JG, Imamura R, et al. Treatment of American cutaneous leishmaniasis, with lesions in the mucosa, using pentamidine isethionate. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 1996;29:477-81.
154. Amato VS, Tuon FF, Imamura R, Abegao de Camargo R, Duarte MI, Neto VA. Mucosal leishmaniasis: description of case management approaches and analysis of risk factors for treatment failure in a cohort of 140 patients in Brazil. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2009;23:1026-34.
155. Romero GA, Lessa HA, Macedo VO, et al. Open therapeutic study with aminosidine sulfate in mucosal leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania (viannia) braziliensis. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 1996;29:557-65.
156. Romero GA, Lessa HA, Orge MG, Macedo VO, Marsden PD. Treatment of mucosal leishmaniasis with aminosidine sulfate: Results of two year follow-up. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 1998;31:511-6.
157. Llanos-Cuentas A, Echevarria J, Seas C, et al. Parenteral ami-nosidine is not effective for Peruvian mucocutaneous leish-maniasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2007;76:1128-31.
158. Franke ED, Wignall FS, Cruz ME, et al. Efficacy and toxicity of sodium stibogluconate for mucosal leishmaniasis. Ann Intern Med. 1990;113:934-40.
159. Oliveira-Neto MP, Mattos M, Pirmez C, et al. Mucosal leish-maniasis ("espundia") responsive to low dose of N-methyl glucamine (glucantime) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 2000;42:321-5.
160. Passos VM, Barreto SM, Romanha AJ, et al. Cutaneous leish-maniasis in the metropolitan region of Belo Horizonte: Clinical, laboratorial, therapeutic and prognosis features (1989-1995). Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2001;34:5-12.
161. Netto EM, Marsden PD, Llanos-Cuentas EA, et al. Long-term follow-up of patients with Leishmania (viannia) braziliensis infection and treated with glucantime. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1990;84:367-70.
162. Franke ED, Llanos-Cuentas A, Echevarria J, et al. Efficacy of 28-day and 40-day regimens of sodium stibogluconate (pento-stam) in the treatment of mucosal leishmaniasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1994;51:77-82.
163. Llanos-Cuentas A, Echevarria J, Cruz M, et al. Efficacy of sodium stibogluconate alone and in combination with allopuri-nol for treatment of mucocutaneous leishmaniasis. Clin Infect Dis. 1997;25:677-84.
164. Saenz RE, de Rodriguez CG, Johnson CM, Berman JD. Efficacy and toxicity of pentostam against Panamanian mucosal leish-maniasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1991;44:394-8.
165. Castes M, Trujillo D, Rojas ME, et al. Serum levels of tumor necrosis factor in patients with American cutaneous leishmani-asis. Biol Res. 1993;26:233-8.
166. Da-Cruz AM, de Oliveira MP, De Luca PM, Mendonca SC, Coutinho SG. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha in human American tegumentary leishmaniasis. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 1996;91:225-9.
167. Doherty GM, Jensen JC, Alexander HR, Buresh CM, Norton JA. Pentoxifylline suppression of tumor necrosis factor gene transcription. Surgery. 1991;110:192-8.
168. Lessa HA, Machado P, Lima F, et al. Successful treatment of refractory mucosal leishmaniasis with pentoxifylline plus antimony. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2001;65:87-9.
169. Machado PR, Lessa H, Lessa M, et al. Oral pentoxifylline combined with pentavalent antimony: a randomized trial for mucosal leishmaniasis. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:788-93.
170. Sampaio RN, Marsden PD. Treatment of the mucosal form of leishmaniasis without response to glucantime, with liposomal amphotericin B. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 1997;30:125-8.
171. Amato VS, Tuon FF, Campos A, et al. Treatment of mucosal leishmaniasis with a lipid formulation of amphotericin B. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:311-2.
172. Amato VS, Tuon FF, Camargo RA, Souza RM, Santos CR, Nicodemo AC. Can we use a lower dose of liposomal ampho-tericin B for the treatment of mucosal American leishmaniasis? Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2011;85:818-9.
173. Velasco O, Savarino SJ, Walton BC, Gam AA, Neva FA. Diffuse cutaneous leishmaniasis in Mexico. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1989;41:280-8.
174. Velez I, Agudelo S, Robledo S, et al. Diffuse cutaneous leish-maniasis with mucosal involvement in Colombia, caused by an enzymatic variant of Leishmania panamensis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1994;88:199.
175. Convit J, Kerdel-Vegas F. Disseminated cutaneous leishmania-sis; innoculation to laboratory animals, electron microscopy and fluorescent antibodies studies. Arch Dermatol. 1965;91:439-47.
176. Convit J, Ulrich M, Fernandez CT, et al. The clinical and immunological spectrum of American cutaneous leishmaniasis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1993;87:444-8.
177. Calvopina M, Gomez EA, Sindermann H, Cooper PJ, Hashig-uchi Y. Relapse of new world diffuse cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania (leishmania) mexicana after miltefosine treatment. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2006;75:1074-7.
178. Zerpa O, Ulrich M, Blanco B, et al. Diffuse cutaneous leish-maniasis responds to miltefosine but then relapses. Br J Der-matol. 2007;156:1328-35.
179. Zerpa O, Blanco B, Kannee C, et al. Treatment of diffuse cutaneous leishmaniasis with miltefosine: a case report. Int J Dermatol. 2006;45:751-3.
180. Ben Salah A, Ben Messaoud N, Guedri E, et al. Topical paro-momycin with or without gentamicin for cutaneous leishmani-asis. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:524-32.