Laboratory identification of arthropod ectoparasites

Clinical Microbiology Reviews

Volumn 27, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 48-67

  Mathison, Blaine A ^a   Pritt, Bobbi S ^b  

^a CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION   (United States)

^b MAYO CLINIC   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; CIMEX; DISEASE TRANSMISSION; ECTOPARASITE; FLEA; MAGGOT; MITE; MYIASIS; NONHUMAN; PARASITE IDENTIFICATION; PEST ARTHROPOD; PHTHIRUS; TICK;

ANIMALS; ARTHROPODS; CLASSIFICATION; ECTOPARASITIC INFESTATIONS; HUMANS; LABORATORIES; SPECIMEN HANDLING; UNITED STATES;

EID: 84891699808     PISSN: 08938512     EISSN: 10986618     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1128/CMR.00008-13     Document Type: Article

References (139)

1. Fritsche TR. 2003. Arthropods of medical importance, p 2061-2078. In Baron EJ, Pfaller MA, Jorgensen JH, Yolken MA (ed), Manual of clinical microbiology, 8th ed, vol 2. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
2. Goddard J. 2012. Physician's guide to arthropods of medical importance, 6th ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
3. Doggett SL, Dwyer DE, Peñas PF, Russell RC. 2012. Bed bugs: clinical relevance and control options. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 25:164-192. http: //dx.doi.org/10.1128/CMR.05015-11.
4. Hamer SA, Tsao JI, Walker ED, Hickling GJ. 2010. Invasion of the Lyme disease vector Ixodes scapularis: implications for Borrelia burgdorferi endemicity. EcoHealth 7:47-63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10393-010-0287-0.
5. Lambrechts L, Scott TW, Gubler DJ. 2010. Consequences of the expanding global distribution of Aedes albopictus for dengue virus transmission. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 4:e646. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0000646.
6. Hongoh V, Berrang-Ford L, Scott ME, Lindsay LR. 2012. Expanding geographical distribution of the mosquito Culex pipiens, in Canada under climate change. Appl. Geogr. 33:53-62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2011.05.015.
7. Dekoninck W, Hendrickx F, Versteirt V, Coosemans M, de Clercq EM, Hendrickx G, Hance T, Grootaert P. 2013. Changes in species richness and spatial distribution of mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) inferred from museum specimen records and a recent inventory: a case study from Belgium suggests recent expanded distribution of arbovirus and malaria vectors. J. Med. Entomol. 50:237-243. http://dx.doi.org/10.1603/ME12134.
8. Rochlin I, Ninivaggi DV, Hutchinson ML, Farajollahi A. 2013. Climate change and range expansion of the Asian tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus) in northeastern USA: implications for public health practitioners. PLoS One 8:e60874. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0060874.
9. Ebling W. 1978. Urban entomology. University of California Press, Davis, CA.
10. Olsen AR. 1998. Regulatory action criteria for filth and other extraneous materials. III. Review of flies and foodborne enteric disease. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 28:199-211.
11. Graczyk TK, Knight R, Tamang L. 2005. Mechanical transmission of human protozoan parasites by insects. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 18:128-132. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/CMR.18.1.128-132.2005.
12. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2012. DPDx: laboratory identification of parasites of public health concern. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA. http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/dpdx /Default.htm. Accessed 1 November 2012.
13. Hellier FF, Warin RP. 1967. Caterpillar dermatitis. Br. Med. J. ii:346-348. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.2.5548.346.
14. Méndez E, Sáenz RE, Johnson CM. 1989. Blister beetle dermatitis caused by Epicauta flagellaria (Erichson) (Coleoptera: Meloidae). Rev. Med. Panama 14:139-144.
15. Mammino JJ. 2011. Paederus dermatitis. An outbreak on a medical mission boat in the Amazon. J. Clin. Aesthet. Dermatol. 4:44-46. http: //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3225135/.
16. Vetter RS, Visscher PK. 1998. Bites and stings of medically important venomous arthropods. Int. J. Dermatol. 37:481-496. http://dx.doi.org /10.1046/j.1365-4362.1998.00455.x.
17. Wormser GP, Dattwyler RJ, Shapiro ED, Halperin JJ, Steere AC, Klempner MS, Krause PJ, Bakken JS, Strle F, Stanek G, Bockenstedt L, Fish D, Dumler S, Nadelman RB. 2006. The clinical assessment, treatment, and prevention of Lyme disease, human granulocytic anaplasmosis, and babesiosis: clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin. Infect. Dis. 43:1089-1134. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/508667.
18. James MT. 1947. The flies that cause myiasis in man. Miscellaneous publications, no 631. US Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC.
19. Borror DJ, Triplehorn CA, Johnson NF. 1989. An introduction to the study of insects, 6th ed. Saunders College Publishing, Fort Worth, TX.
20. Garcia LS. 2007. Diagnostic medical parasitology, 5th ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
21. Vink CJ, Thomas SM, Paquin P, Hayashi CY, Hedin M. 2005. The effects of preservatives and temperatures on arachnid DNA. Invertebr. Syst. 19:99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/IS04039.
22. Frampton M, Droege S, Conrad T, Prager S, Richards MH. 2008. Evaluation of specimen preservatives for DNA analysis of bees. J. Hymenoptera Res. 17:195-200.
23. Estrada-Peña A, Jongejan F. 1999. Ticks feeding on humans: a review of records of human-biting Ixodoidea with special reference to pathogen transmission. Exp. Appl. Acaral. 23:695-715.
24. Keirans JE, Litwak TR. 1989. Pictorial key to the adults of hard ticks, family Ixodidae (Ixodida: Ixodoidea) east of the Mississippi River. J. Med. Entomol. 26:435-448.
25. Cooney JC, Hays KL. 1972. The ticks of Alabama (Ixodidae: Acarina). Auburn University Agricultural Experimental Station bulletin no 426. Auburn University, Auburn, AL.
26. Needham GR. 1985. Evaluation of five popular methods of tick removal. Pediatrics 75:997-1002.
27. Stone BF. 1990. Tick paralysis-a suggestion. Aust. Vet. Pract. 20:38-39.
28. Martin JEH. 1977. The insects and arachnids of Canada. Part 1. Collecting, preparing, and preserving insects, mites, and spiders. Biosystematics Research Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
29. US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. 1978. Ticks of public health importance and their control. Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GA.
30. Eisen RJ, Piesman J, Zielinski-Gutierrez E, Eisen L. 2012. What do we know about disease ecology to prevent Lyme disease in the northeastern United States. J. Med. Entomol. 49:11-22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1603 /ME11138.
31. Sanders ML, Scott AL, Glass GE, Schwartz BE. 1996. Salivary gland changes and host antibody responses accociated with feeding of male lone star ticks (Acari: Ixodidae). J. Med. Entomol. 33:628-634.
32. Keirans JE, Durden LA. 1998. Illustrated key to nymphs of the tick genus Amblyomma (Acari: Ixodidae) found in the United States. J. Med. Entomol. 35:489-495.
33. Ewing SA, Dawson JE, Kocan AA, Baker RW, Warner CK, Paniera RJ, Fox JC, Kocan KM, Bloun EF. 1995. Experimental transmission of Ehrlichia chaffeensis (Rickettsiales: Ehrlichiaea) among white-tailed deer by Amblyomma americanum (Acari: Ixodidae). J. Med. Entomol. 32: 368-374.
34. Loving SM, Smith AB, Disalvo AF, Burgdorfer W. 1978. Distribution and prevalence of spotted fever group rickettsiae in ticks from South Carolina, with an epidemiological survey of persons bitten by infected ticks. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 27:1255-1260.
35. Linthicum KJ, Bailey CL. 1994. Ecology of Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever, p 392-437. In Sonenshine DE, Mather TN (ed), Ecological dynamic of tick-borne zoonoses. Oxford University Press, Oxford, United Kingdom.
36. Jones EK, Clifford CM, Keirans JE, Kolhs GM. 1972. The ticks of Venezuela (Acarina: Ixodoidea) with a key to the species of Amblyomma in the Western Hemisphere. Brigham Young Univ. Sci. Bull. 4:1-18.
37. Fairchild GB, Kohls GM, Tipton VJ. 1966. The ticks of Panama (Acarina: Ixodoidea), p 167-218. In Wenzel RL (ed), Ectoparasites of Panama. Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, IL.
38. Hoogstraal H. 1956. African Ixodoidea. I. Ticks of the Sudan (with special reference to Equatoria province and with preliminary reviews of the genera Boophilus, Magaropus, and Hyalomma). US Naval Medical Research ReportNM005 050.29.07. US Naval Medical Research Center, Silver Spring, MD.
39. Matthysee JG, Colbo MH. 1987. Ixodid ticks of Uganda. Entomological Society of America, Lanham, MD.
40. Anastos G. 1950. The scutate ticks, or Ixodidae, of Indonesia. Entomol. Am. 30:1-144.
41. Kohls GM. 1957. Malaysian parasites. XVIII. Ticks (Ixodoidea) of Borneo and Malaya. Malaya 28:65-94.
42. McCarthy VC. 1967. Ixodid ticks (Acarina, Ixodidae) of West Pakistan. Ph.D. thesis. University of Maryland, College Park, MD.
43. Yamaguti N, Tipton VJ, Keegan HL, Toshioka S. 1971. Ticks of Japan, Korea, and the Ryuku Islands. Brigham Young Univ. Sci. Bull. 15:1-113.
44. Hoogstraal H, Wassef HY, Büttiker W. 1981. Ticks (Acarina) of Saudi Arabia. Fam. Argasidae, Ixodidae. Fauna Saudi Arabia 3:25-110.
45. Volzit OV, Keirans JE. 2002. A review of Asian Amblyomma species (Acari, Ixodida, Ixodidae). Acarina 10:95-136.
46. Kohls GM. 1957. Insects of Micronesia. Acarina: Ixodoidea. Insects Micronesia 3:85-104.
47. Roberts FHS. 1970. Australian ticks. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Queensland, Australia.
48. Yunker CE, Cory J. 1967. Growth of Colorado tick fever virus in primary tissue cultures of its vector, Dermacentor andersoni Stiles (Acarina: Ixodidae), with notes on tick tissue culture. Exp. Parasitol. 20:267-277. http: //dx.doi.org/10.1016/0014-4894(67)90049-5.
49. Pchelkin AP, Korenberg EI, Vakhrusheva ZP, Pchelkina AA. 1989. Quantitative evaluation of the amount of tick-borne Rickettsia in a population of its principle vector. Med. Parazitol. (Mosk.) 6:12-15.
50. Yunker CE, Keirans JE, Clifford CM, Easton ER. 1986. Dermacentor ticks (Acari: Ixodoidea: Ixodidae) of the New World: a scanning electron microscope atlas. Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash. 88:609-627.
51. Arthur DR. 1963. British ticks. Butterworths, London, United Kingdom.
52. Pomerantzev BI. 1950. Ixodid ticks (Ixodidae). Fauna of the USSR. Arachnida, vol IV, no 2. Zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences USSR, Moscow, Russia.
53. Kaiser MN, Hoogstraal H. The Hyalomma ticks (Ixodoidea, Ixodidae) of Pakistan, India, and Ceylon, with keys to subgenera and species. Acarologia 6:257-286.
54. Keirans JE, Clifford CM. 1978. The genus Ixodes in the United States: a scanning electron microscope study and key to the adults. J. Med. Entomol. Suppl. 2:1-149.
55. Arthur DR. 1965. Ticks of the genus Ixodes in Africa. Athlone Press, University of London, London, United Kingdom.
56. Cooley RA, Kohls GN. 1944. The Argasidae of North America, Central America, and Cuba. The American Midland naturalist. Monograph no 1. University Press, Notre Dame, IN.
57. Suida K, Jarosz Z, Norek J. 1982. The case of attack to trumpeters in St. Mary's Church in Krakow by the ticks Argas (Argas) polonicus (Acarina: Ixodides: Argasidae). Material IV Sympozjum Akaroentomologii Medycznej I Wterynaryjnej. Wiad. Parazytol. 18:57-62.
58. Hoogstraal H. 1985. Argasid and nuttallielid ticks as parasites and vectors. Adv. Parasitol. 24:136-220.
59. Peacock PB. 1958. Tick paralysis or poliomyelitis. S. Afr. J. Med. Sci. 32:201-202.
60. Elder BL, Morgan MS, Arlian LG. 2012. Effect of stored product mite extracts on human dermal microvascular endothelial cells. J. Med. Entomol. 49:1411-1418. http://dx.doi.org/10.1603/ME12142.
61. Los Angeles County Department of Public Health. 2009. Diagnosis of scabies by skin scrapings. Los Angeles County scabies prevention and control guidelines. Los Angeles County Department of Public Health, Los Angeles, CA. http://publichealth.lacounty.gov/acd/docs/Scabies /SkinScrapingProcedure.pdf. Accessed 1 November 2012.
62. Desch C, Nutting WB. 1972. Demodex folliculorum (Simon) and D. brevis Akbulatova of man: redescription and reevaluation. J. Parasitol. 58:169-177. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3278267.
63. Liu D. 2012. Demodex (hair follicle mite), p 741-746. In Liu D (ed), Molecular detection of human parasitic pathogens. CRC Press, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
64. Jenkins DW. 1948. Trobiculid mites affecting man. I. Bionomics with reference to epidemiology in the United States. Am. J. Hyg. 48:22-35.
65. Pratt HD. 1963. Mites of public health importance and their control. US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Atlanta, GA.
66. McCrea B, Jeffrey S, Ernst T. 2005. Common lice and mites of poultry: identification and treatment. University of California Division of Agricultural and Natural Resources publication 8162. ANR Publications, Oakland, CA. http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/pdf/8162.pdf.
67. US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. 1969. Pictorial keys to arthropods, reptiles, birds, and mammals of public health significance. Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GA.
68. Moss WW. 1978. The mite genus Dermanyssus: a survey, with descriptions of Dermanyssus trochilinus n. sp., and a revised key to the species (Acari: Mesostigmata: Dermanyssidae). J. Med. Entomol. 14:627-640.
69. Nieri-Bastos FA, Labruna MB, Marcili A, Durden LA, Mendoza-Uribe L, Barros-Battesti DM. 2011. Morphological and molecular analysis of Ornithonyssus spp. (Acari: Macronyssidae) from small terrestrial mammals in Brazil. Exp. Appl. Acarol. 55:305-327. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007 /s10493-011-9475-z.
70. Kim KC, Pratt HD, Stojanovich CJ. 1986. The sucking lice of North America. Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, PA.
71. Veracx A, Raoult D. 2012. Biology and genetics of human head and body lice. Trends Parasitol. 28:563-571. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2012.09.003.
72. Kim KC. 1991. Order Anoplura, p 224-245. In StehrFW(ed), Immature insects, vol 1. Kendall/Hunt Publishing, Dubuque, IA.
73. Burkhart CN, Burkhart CG. 2000. Oral ivermectin therapy for phthiriasis palpebrarum. Arch. Ophthalmol. 118:134-135. http://archopht.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid_412715.
74. Yoon K-C, Park H-Y, Seo M-S, Park Y-G. 2003. Mechanical treatment of phthiriasis palpebrarum. Korean J. Ophthalmol. 17:71-73. http://ekjo.org/Synapse/Data/PDFData/0065KJO/kjo-17-71.pdf.
75. Pinckney J, II, Cole P, Vadapalli SP, Rosen T. 2008. Phthiriasis palpebrarum: a common culprit with uncommon presentation. Dermatol. Online J. 14:7. http://escholarship.org/uc/item/484966z2?query_Pinckney.
76. Elbel RE. 1991. Order Siphonaptera, p 674-689. In Stehr FW (ed), Immature insects, vol 2. Kendall/Hunt Publishing, Dubuque, IA.
77. Ewing HE, Fox I. 1943. The fleas of North America. Miscellaneous publications, no 500. US Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC.
78. Pratt HD, Wiseman JS. 1962. Fleas of public health importance and their control. US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Atlanta, GA.
79. Orihel TC, Ash LR. 1995. Parasites in human tissues. American Society of Clinical Pathologists, Chicago, IL.
80. Gibb T, Oseto C. 2006. Arthropod collection and identification: laboratory and field techniques. Academic Press, Burlington, MA.
81. Rust MK, Dryden MW. 1997. The biology, ecology, and management of the cat flea. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 42:451-473. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146 /annurev.ento.42.1.451.
82. Welch DF, Slater LN. 2003. Bartonella and Afipia, p 824-834. In Baron EJ, Pfaller MA, Jorgensen JH, YolkenMA(ed), Manual of clinical microbiology. 8th ed, vol 1. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
83. Pérez-Osorio CE, Zavala-Velázquez JE, Léon JJA, Zavala-Castro JE. 2008. Rickettsia felis as emergent global threat for humans. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 14:1019-1023. http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1407.071656.
84. Tsai K-H, Lu H-Y, Tsai J-J, Yu S-K, Huang J-H, Shu P-Y. 2008. Human case of Rickettsia felis infection, Taiwan. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 14:1970-1972. http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1412.080515.
85. Perry RD, Fetherston JD. 1997. Yersinia pestis-etiologic agent of plague. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 10:35-66.
86. Beresford-Jones WP. 1974. The fleas Ctenocephalides felis felis (Bouche, 1833), Ctenocephalides canis (Curtis, 1826), and the mite Cheyletiella (Canestrini, 1886) in the dog and cat: their transmissibility to humans, p 383-390. In Soulsby ELJ (ed), Zoonotic parasitoses, clinical and experimental studies. Academic Press, London, United Kingdom.
87. Jiang J, Soeatmadji DW, Henry KM, Ratiwayanto S, Bangs MJ, Richards AL. 2006. Rickettsia felis in Xenopsylla cheopis, Java, Indonesia. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 12:1281-1283. http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1208.060327.
88. Francesconi F, Lupi O. 2012. Myiasis. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 25:79-105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00010-11.
89. Zumpt F. 1965. Myiasis in man and animals in the Old World. Butterworths, London, United Kingdom.
90. Gilead L, Mumcuoglu KY, Ingber A. 2012. The use of maggot debridement therapy in the treatment of chronic wounds in hospitalized and ambulatory patients. J. Wound Care 78:82-85.
91. Kingu HJ, Kuria SK, Villet MH, Mkhize JN, Dhaffala A, Iisa JM. 2012. Cutaneous myiasis: is Lucilia cuprina safe and acceptable for maggot debridement therapy? J. Cosmet. Dermatol. Sci. Appl. 2:79-82. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jcdsa.2012.22018.
92. Seaquist ER, Henry TR, Cheong E, Theologides A. 1983. Phormia regina myiasis in a malignant wound. Minnesota Med. 66:409-410.
93. Kiliç K, Arslan MO, Kara M. 2011. A postoperative wound myiasis caused by Lucilia sericata (Diptera: Calliphoridae) in a woman in Kars. Turkiye Parazitol. Derg. 35:43-46. http://dx.doi.org/10.5152/tpd.2011.11.
94. Talari S-A, Sadr F, Doroodgar A, Talari M-R, Gharabagh A-S. 2004. Wound myiasis caused by Lucilia sericata. Arch. Iran. Med. 7:128-129. http://www.ams.ac.ir/AIM/0472/012.pdf.
95. Greenberg B. 1984. Two cases of human myiasis caused by Phaenicia sericata (Diptera: Calliphoridae) in Chicago area hospitals. J. Med. Entomol. 21:615.
96. Josephseon RL, Krajden S. 1993. An unusual nosocomial infection: nasotracheal myiasis. J. Otolaryngol. 22:46-47.
97. Graham OH. 1985. Symposium on eradication of the screwworm fly from the United States and Mexico. Miscellaneous publications, no 62. Entomological Society of America, Annapolis, MD.
98. Foote BA, Stehr FW. 1991. Oestridae (Oestroidea), p 867-870. In StehrFW (ed), Immature insects, vol 2. Kendall/Hunt Publishing, Dubuque, IA.
99. Legacé-Wiens PRS, Dookeran R, Skinner S, Leicht R, Colwell DD, Galloway TD. 2008. Human ophthalmomyiasis interna caused by Hypoderma tarandi, northern Canada. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 14:64-66. http: //dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1401.070163.
100. Kim JS, Kim JW, Lee HJ, Lee IY, Oh SA, Seo M. 2011. Ophthalmomyiasis caused by Phormia sp. (Diptera: Calliphoridae) in an enucleated patient. Korean J. Parasitol. 49:173-175. http://dx.doi.org/10.3347/kjp.2011.49.2.173.
101. Abasa RO. 1968. Reproductive biology of Sarcophaga tibialis (Diptera: Sarcophagidae). I. Life history with notes on prepupation mortality and pupation habits. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 63:466-469.
102. Causey OR. 1938. Experimental intestinal myiasis. Am. J. Hyg. 28:481-486.
103. Komárek J. 1936. Sur le problem de la myase intestinale. Brussels Mus. R. Hist. Nat. Mem. Ser. 2 Fasc. 3:23-30.
104. Riley WA. 1939. The possibility of intestinal myiasis in man. J. Econ. Entomol. 32:875-876.
105. Hyun DY, Cain MP, Blue-Hnidy DE, Conway JH. 2004. Urinary myiasis associated with urethral stent placements. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 23:179-181. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.inf.0000109957.01170.4c.
106. Wadhwa V, Kharbanda P, Rai S, Uppal B. 2006. Urogenital myiasis due to Chrysomyia bezziana. Indian J. Med. Microbiol. 24:70-71. http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/0255-0857.19903.
107. Reinhardt K, Siva-Jothy MT. 2007. Biology of the bed bugs (Cimicidae). Annu. Rev. Entomol. 52:351-374. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.52.040306.133913.
108. James MT, Harwood RF. 1971. Herm's medical entomology, 6th ed. MacMillan Company, London, United Kingdom.
109. Yonke TR. 1991. Order Hemiptera, p 22-65. In Stehr FW (ed), Immature insects, vol 1. Kendall/Hunt Publishing, Dubuque, IA.
110. Khan HR, Rahman M. 2012. Morphology and biology of the bed bug, Cimex hemipterus (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) in the laboratory. Dhaka Univ. J. Biol. Sci. 21:125-130. http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/dujbs.v21i2.11510.
111. Solbé JFLG, Tozer JS. 1971. Aspects of the biology of Psychoda alternata (Say.) and P. severini Tonn. (Diptera) in a percolating filter. J. Appl. Ecol. 8:835-844. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2402686.
112. Satchell GH. 1947. The ecology of the British species of Psychoda (Diptera: Psychodidae). Ann. Appl. Biol. 34:611-621.
113. Abou-El-Ela R, Taher MO, Nazer IO. 1978. On the biology of Eristalis aeneus (Scopoli) in Saudi Arabia (Diptera: Syrphidae). J. Fac. Sci. Riyad Univ. 9:73-86.
114. Telford HS. 1970. Eristalis (Diptera: Syrphidae) from America North of Mexico. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 63:1201-1210.
115. Harrison DA, Cooper RL. 2003. Characterization of development, behavior and neuromuscular physiology in the phorid fly, Megaselia scalaris. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A Mol. Integr. Physiol. 136:427-439. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1095-6433(03)00200-9.
116. Mumcuoglu I, Akarsu GA, Balabam N, Keles I. 2005. Eristalis tenax as a cause of urinary myiasis. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 37:942-943. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00365540510043275.
117. Youssefi MR, Sefidgar SAA, Tabari MA. 2010. First report of intestinal myiasis due to Eristalis tenax in Iran. Iran. J. Parasitol. 5:77-79. http: //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3279835/.
118. Wakid MH. 2008. A laboratory-based study for first documented case of urinary myiasis caused by larvae of Megaselia scalaris (Diptera: Phoridae) in Saudia Arabia. Korean J. Parasitol. 46:33-36. http://dx.doi.org/10.3347/kjp.2008.46.1.33.
119. Fuentes MV, Sáez-Durán S, Galán-Puchades MT. 2011. Potential urogenital myiasis caused by Pseychoda sp. (Nematocera: Psychodidae). First case reported in Spain. Rev. Ibero Latinoam. Parasitol. 70:212-215. http: //www.socepa.es/revista/IMG/pdf/a10.pdf.
120. Chin Y. 1965. Larvae of Psychoda urinated out from a male child patient in Shenyang. Acta Entomol. Sin. 9:96.
121. Foote BA, Stehr FW. 1991. Psychodidae (Psychodoidea), p 746. In Stehr FW (ed), Immature insects, vol 2. Kendall/Hunt Publishing, Dubuque, IA.
122. Foote BA, Stehr FW. 1991. Syrphidae (Syrphoidea), p 792-795. In StehrFW (ed), Immature insects, vol 2. Kendall/Hunt Publishing, Dubuque, IA.
123. Cianferoni A, Schneider L, Schantz PM, Brown D, Fox LM. 2006. Visceral larval migrans associated with earthworm ingestion: clinical evolution in an adolescent patient. Pediatrics 117:e336-e339. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2005-1596.
124. Edwards CA, Bohlen PJ. 1996. Biology and ecology of earthworms, 3rd ed. Chapman & Hall, London, United Kingdom.
125. Pennak RW. 1953. Freshwater invertebrates of the United States. Ronald Press Company, New York, NY.
126. Hanelt B, Thomas F, Schmidt-Rhaesa A. 2005. Biology of the phylum Nematomorpha. Adv. Parasitol. 59:243-305. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016 /S0065-308X(05)59004-3.
127. Ali-Khan FE, Ali-Khan Z. 1977. Paragordius varius (Leidy) (Nematomorpha) infection in man: a case report from Quebec (Canada). J. Parasitol. 63:174-176. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3280141.
128. Yamada M, Tegoshi T, Abe N, Urabe M. 2012. Two human cases infected by the horsehair worm, Parachordodes sp. (Nematomorpha: Chordodidae) in Japan. Korean J. Parasitol. 50:263-267. http://dx.doi.org/10.3347/kjp.2012.50.3.263.
129. Johnson KP, Yoshizawa K, Smith VS. 2004. Multiple origins of parasitism in lice. Proc. Biol. Sci. 271:1771-1776. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098 /rspb.2004.2798.
130. Yoshizawa K, Johnson KP. 2006. Morphology of the male genitalia in lice and their relatives and phylogenetic implications. Syst. Entomol. 31:350-361. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3113.2005.00323.x.
131. Smithers CN. 1972. The classification and phylogeny of the Psocoptera. Aust. Mus. Mem. 14:1-349. http://dx.doi.org/10.3853/j.0067-1967.14.1972.424.
132. Spieksma FTM, Smits C. 1974. Some ecological and biological aspects of the booklouse Liposcelis bostrychophilus Badonnel 1931 (Psocoptera). Neth. J. Zool. 25:219-230.
133. Baz A, Monserrat VJ. 1999. Distribution of domestic Psocoptera in Madrid apartments. Med. Vet. Entomol. 13:259-264. http://dx.doi.org /10.1046/j.1365-2915.1999.00176.x.
134. Mockford EL. 1991. Order Psocoptera, p 196-214. In Stehr FW (ed), Immature insects, vol 1. Kendall/Hunt Publishing, Dubuque, IA.
135. Beal RS. 1991. Dermestidae (Bostrichoidea), p 434-439. In Stehr FW (ed), Immature insects, vol 2. Kendall/Hunt Publishing, Dubuque, IA.
136. Cormia FR, Lewis GM. 1948. Contact dermatitis from beetles, with a report of a case due to the carpet beetle (Anthrenus scrophulariae). N. Y. State J. Med. 88:68-72.
137. Ahmed R, Moy R, Barr R, Price Z. 1981. Carpet beetle dermatitis. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 5:428-432. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0190-9622(81)70104-X.
138. Prokopič J, Bílý S. 1981. Coleoptera as intermediate hosts for helminths. Č eskoslovenská Akademie Věd, Prague, Czech Republic.
139. Cooley RA, Kohls GN. 1944. The genus Amblyomma in the Unites States. J. Parasitol. 30:77-111. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3272571.