Neuromuscular complications in intensive care patients

Handbook of Clinical Neurology

Volumn 121, Issue , 2014, Pages 1673-1685

  Argov, Zohar ^a   Latronico, Nicola ^b  

^a HADASSAH HEBREW UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (Israel)

^b UNIVERSITY OF BRESCIA   (Italy)

Author keywords

Critical illness; Drug induced weakness; ICU myopathy; ICU neuropathy; ICU weakness; Rhabdomyolysis

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION; CRITICAL ILLNESS; DRUG-INDUCED WEAKNESS; HUMAN; ICU MYOPATHY; ICU NEUROPATHY; ICU WEAKNESS; INTENSIVE CARE; MUSCLE WEAKNESS; NEUROMUSCULAR DISEASE; PERIPHERAL NEUROPATHY; RHABDOMYOLYSIS;

CRITICAL ILLNESS; DRUG-INDUCED WEAKNESS; ICU MYOPATHY; ICU NEUROPATHY; ICU WEAKNESS; RHABDOMYOLYSIS;

HUMANS; INTENSIVE CARE; MUSCLE WEAKNESS; NEUROMUSCULAR DISEASES; PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASES; RESPIRATION, ARTIFICIAL;

EID: 84890849160     PISSN: 00729752     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-7020-4088-7.00108-5     Document Type: Chapter

References (132)

1. Ali N.A. Have we found the prevention for intensive care unit-acquired paresis?. Crit. Care 2010, 14:160.
2. Ali N.A., O'Brien J.M., Hoffmann S.P., et al. Acquired weakness handgrip strength and mortality in critically ill patients. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2008, 178:261-268.
3. Allen D.C., Arunachalam R., Mills K.R. Critical illness myopathy: further evidence from muscle-fiber excitability studies of an acquired channelopathy. Muscle Nerve 2008, 37:14-22.
4. Aranason B.G.W., Soliven B. Acute inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy. Peripheral Neuropathy 1993, 1437-1497. WB Saunders, Philadelphia. P.J. Dyck, P.K. Thomas, J.W. Griffin, P.A. Low, J.F. Podulso (Eds.).
5. Argov Z., Mastaglia F.L. Drug therapy: disorders of neuromuscular transmission caused by drugs. N. Engl. J. Med. 1979, 301:409-413.
6. Banwell B.L., Mildner R.J., Hassall A.C., et al. Muscle weakness in critically ill children. Neurology 2003, 61:1779-1782.
7. Bednarik J., Lukas Z., Vondracek P. Critical illness polyneuromyopathy: the electrophysiological components of a complex entity. Intensive Care Med. 2003, 29:1505-1514.
8. Bednarik J., Vondracek P., Dusek L., et al. Risk factors for critical illness polyneuromyopathy. J. Neurol. 2005, 252:343-351.
9. Bercker S., Weber-Carstens S., Deja M., et al. Critical illness polyneuropathy and myopathy in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med 2005, 33:711-715.
10. Berry P.R., Wallis W.E. Venepuncture nerve injuries. Lancet 1977, 1:1236-1237.
11. Bolton C.F. Evidence of neuromuscular dysfunction in the early stages of the systemic inflammatory response syndrome. Intensive Care Med. 2000, 26:1179-1180.
12. Bolton C.F. Neuromuscular manifestations of critical illness. Muscle Nerve 2005, 32:140-163.
13. Bolton C.F. The discovery of critical illness polyneuropathy: a memoir. Can J. Neurol. Sci. 2010, 37:431-438.
14. Bolton C.F., Gilbert J.J., Hahn A.F., et al. Polyneuropathy in critically ill patients. J. Neurol. Neurosurg Psychiatry 1984, 47:1223-1231.
15. Bolton C.F., Laverty D.A., Brown J.D., et al. Critically ill polyneuropathy: electrophysiological studies and differentiation from Guillain-Barré syndrome. J. Neurol. Neurosurg Psychiatry 1986, 49:563-573.
16. Bolton C.F., Young G.B., Zochodne D.W. The neurological complications of sepsis. Ann Neurol. 1993, 33:94-100.
17. Brealey D., Brand M., Hargreaves I., et al. Association between mitochondrial dysfunction and severity and outcome of septic shock. Lancet 2002, 360:219-223.
18. Burtin C., Clerckx B., Robbeets C., et al. Early exercise in critically ill patients enhances short-term functional recovery. Crit Care Med. 2009, 37:2499-2505.
19. Callahan L.A., Supinski G.S. Sepsis-induced myopathy. Crit Care Med. 2009, 37:S354-S367.
20. Coakley J.H., Nagendran K., Yarwood G.D., et al. Patterns of neurophysiological abnormality in prolonged critical illness. Intensive Care Med. 1998, 24:801-807.
21. Cohen H.A., Ashkenasi A., Ring H., et al. Poliomyelitis-like syndrome following asthmatic attack (Hopkins' syndrome) - recovery associated with IV gamma globulin treatment. Infection 1998, 26:247-249.
22. Danon M.J., Carpenter S. Myopathy with thick filament (myosin) loss following prolonged paralysis with vecuronium during steroid treatment. Muscle Nerve 1991, 14:1131-1139.
23. De Backer D., Creteur J., Preiser J.C., et al. Microvascular blood flow is altered in patients with sepsis. Am. J. Respir. Crit Care Med. 2002, 166:98-104.
24. De Backer D., Ospina-Tascon G., Salgado D., et al. Monitoring the microcirculation in the critically ill patient: current methods and future approaches. Intensive Care Med. 2010, 36:1813-1825.
25. De Jonghe B., Sharshar T., Lefaucheur J.P.A., et al. Paresis acquired in the intensive care unit: a prospective multicenter study. JAMA 2002, 288:2859-2867.
26. De Jonghe B., Bastuji-Garin S., Durand M.C., et al. Respiratory weakness is associated with limb weakness and delayed weaning in critical illness. Crit Care Med. 2007, 35:2007-2015.
27. Deconinck N., Van Parijs V., Beckers-Bleukx G., et al. Critical illness myopathy unrelated to corticosteroids or neuromuscular blocking agents. Neuromuscul Disord 1998, 8:186-192.
28. Derde S., Hermans G., Derese I., et al. Muscle atrophy and preferential loss of myosin in prolonged critically ill patients. Crit Care Med. 2012, 40:79-89.
29. Douglass J.A., Tuxen D.V., Horne M., et al. Myopathy in severe asthma. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 1992, 146:517-519.
30. Fenzi F., Latronico N., Refatti N., et al. Enhanced expression of E-selectin on the vascular endothelium of peripheral nerve in critically ill patients with neuromuscular disorders. Acta Neuropathol. (Berl) 2003, 106:75-82.
31. Finfer S., Chittock D.R., Su S.Y., et al. Intensive versus conventional glucose control in critically ill patients. N. Engl. J. Med. 2009, 360:1283-1297.
32. Fletcher S.N., Kennedy D.D., Ghosh I.R., et al. Persistent neuromuscular and neurophysiologic abnormalities in long-term survivors of prolonged critical illness. Crit Care Med. 2003, 31:1012-1016.
33. Garnacho-Montero J., Madrazo-Osuna J., Garcia-Garmendia J.L., et al. Critical illness polyneuropathy: risk factors and clinical consequences. A cohort study in septic patients. Intensive Care Med. 2001, 27:1288-1296.
34. Girard T.D., Kress J.P., Fuchs B.D., et al. Efficacy and safety of a paired sedation and ventilator weaning protocol for mechanically ventilated patients in intensive care (Awakening and Breathing Controlled trial): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2008, 371:126-134.
35. Goodman B.P., Harper C.M., Boon A.J. Prolonged compound muscle action potential duration in critical illness myopathy. Muscle Nerve 2009, 40:1040-1042.
36. Gorson K.C. Approach to neuromuscular disorders in the intensive care unit. Neurocrit Care 2005, 3:195-212.
37. Griffiths R.D., Palmer T.E., Helliwell T., et al. Effect of passive stretching on the wasting of muscle in the critically ill. Nutrition 1995, 11:428-432.
38. Guarneri B., Bertolini G., Latronico N. Long-term outcome in patients with critical illness myopathy or neuropathy: the Italian multicentre CRIMYNE study. J. Neurol. Neurosurg Psychiatry 2008, 79:838-841.
39. Gutmann L., Blumenthal D., Gutmann L., et al. Acute type II myofiber atrophy in critical illness. Neurology 1996, 46:819-821.
40. Helliwell T.R., Wilkinson A., Griffiths R.D., et al. Muscle fibre atrophy in critically ill patients is associated with the loss of myosin filaments and the presence of lysosomal enzymes and ubiquitin. Neuropathol. Appl. Neurobiol. 1998, 24:507-517.
41. Hermans G., Wilmer A., Meersseman W., et al. Impact of intensive insulin therapy on neuromuscular complications and ventilator dependency in the medical intensive care unit. Am. J. Respir. Crit Care Med. 2007, 175:480-489.
42. Hermans G., De Jonghe B., Bruyninckx F., et al. Interventions for preventing critical illness polyneuropathy and critical illness myopathy. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2009, CD006832.
43. Herridge M.S., Cheung A.M., Tansey C.M., et al. One-year outcomes in survivors of the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med. 2003, 348:683-693.
44. Herridge M.S., Tansey C.M., Matte A., et al. Functional disability 5 years after acute respiratory distress syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med. 2011, 364:1293-1304.
45. Hillerdal G. Idiopathic diaphragmatic paralysis and asthma bronchiale. Respiration 1983, 44:234-236.
46. Hirano M., Ott B.R., Raps E.C., et al. Acute quadriplegic myopathy: a complication of treatment with steroids nondepolarizing blocking agents or both. Neurology 1992, 42:2082-2087.
47. Hoke A., Rewcastle N.B., Zochodne D.W. Acute quadriplegic myopathy unrelated to steroids or paralyzing agents: quantitative EMG studies. Can J. Neurol. Sci. 1999, 26:325-329.
48. Hopkins I.J. A new syndrome: poliomyelitis-like illness associated with acute asthma in childhood. Aust. Paediatr. J. 1974, 10:273-276.
49. Horowitz S.H. Peripheral nerve injury and causalgia secondary to routine venipuncture. Neurology 1994, 44:962-964.
50. Hough C.L., Steinberg K.P., Taylor Thompson B., et al. Intensive care unit-acquired neuromyopathy and corticosteroids in survivors of persistent ARDS. Intensive Care Med. 2009, 35:63-68.
51. Hund E. Myopathy in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med. 1999, 27:2544-2547.
52. Intiso D., Amoruso L., Zarrelli M., et al. Long-term functional outcome and health status of patients with critical illness polyneuromyopathy. Acta Neurol. Scand. 2011, 123:211-219.
53. Jaber S., Petrof B.J., Jung B., et al. Rapidly progressive diaphragmatic weakness and injury during mechanical ventilation in humans. Am. J. Respir. Crit Care Med. 2011, 183:364-371.
54. Jeha L.E., Sila C.A., Lederman R.J., et al. West Nile virus infection: a new acute paralytic illness. Neurology 2003, 61:55-59.
55. Kaplan P.W., Rocha W., Sanders D.B., et al. Acute steroid-induced tetraplegia following status asthmaticus. Pediatrics 1986, 78:121-123.
56. Khan J., Harrison T.B., Rich M.M., et al. Early development of critical illness myopathy and neuropathy in patients with severe sepsis. Neurology 2006, 67:1421-1425.
57. Khan J., Harrison T.B., Rich M.M. Mechanisms of neuromuscular dysfunction in critical illness. Crit Care Clin. 2008, 24:165-177.
58. Koch S., Spuler S., Deja M., et al. Critical illness myopathy is frequent: accompanying neuropathy protracts ICU discharge. J. Neurol. Neurosurg Psychiatry 2011, 82:287-293.
59. Kortebein P., Ferrando A., Lombeida J., et al. Effect of 10 days of bed rest on skeletal muscle in healthy older adults. JAMA 2007, 297:1772-1774.
60. Kress J.P., Pohlman A.S., O'Connor M.F., et al. Daily interruption of sedative infusions in critically ill patients undergoing mechanical ventilation. N. Engl. J. Med 2000, 342:1471-1477.
61. Lachmann E.A., Rook J.L., Tunkel R., et al. Complications associated with intermittent pneumatic compression. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 1992, 73:482-485.
62. Lacomis D., Zochodne D.W., Bird S.J. Critical illness myopathy. Muscle Nerve 2000, 23:1785-1788.
63. Larsson L., Li X., Edstrom L., et al. Acute quadriplegia and loss of muscle myosin in patients treated with nondepolarizing neuromuscular blocking agents and corticosteroids: mechanisms at the cellular and molecular levels. Crit Care Med. 2000, 28:34-45.
64. Latronico N. Neuromuscular alterations in the critically ill patient: critical illness myopathy critical illness neuropathy or both?. Intensive Care Med. 2003, 29:1411-1413.
65. Latronico N. Axonal inexcitability and axonal degeneration: two sides of the same coin. J. Clin. Invest 2009, 119. Eletter. http://wwwjciorg/eletters/view/36570.
66. Latronico N., Bolton C.F. Critical illness polyneuropathy and myopathy: a major cause of muscle weakness and paralysis in the critically ill patient. Lancet Neurol. 2011, 10:931-941.
67. Latronico N., Candiani A. Muscular wasting as a consequence of sepsis. Anaesthesia Pain Intensive Care and Emergency Medicine APICE 1998, 517-522. Springer-Verlag, Milan. 13th edn. A. Gullo (Ed.).
68. Latronico N., Fenzi F., Boniotti C., et al. Acute reversible paralysis in critically ill patients. Acta Anaesthesiol. Ital. 1993, 44:157-171.
69. Latronico N., Fenzi F., Recupero D., et al. Critical illness myopathy and neuropathy. Lancet 1996, 347:1579-1582.
70. Latronico N., Guarneri B., Alongi S., et al. Acute neuromuscular respiratory failure after ICU discharge. Report of five patients. Intensive Care Med. 1999, 25:1302-1306.
71. Latronico N., Peli E., Botteri M. Critical illness myopathy and neuropathy. Curr. Opin. Crit Care 2005, 11:126-132.
72. Latronico N., Shehu I., Seghelini E. Neuromuscular sequelae of critical illness. Curr. Opin. Crit Care 2005, 11:381-390.
73. Latronico N., Bertolini G., Guarneri B., et al. Simplified electrophysiological evaluation of peripheral nerves in critically ill patients: the Italian multi-centre CRIMYNE study. Crit Care 2007, 11:R11.
74. Latronico N., Shehu I., Guarneri B. Use of electrophysiologic testing. Crit Care Med. 2009, 37:S316-S320.
75. Lefaucheur J.P., Nordine T., Rodriguez P., et al. Origin of ICU acquired paresis determined by direct muscle stimulation. J. Neurol. Neurosurg Psychiatry 2006, 77:500-506.
76. Leijten F.S., Harinck-De Weerd J.E., Poortvliet D.C., et al. The role of polyneuropathy in motor convalescence after prolonged mechanical ventilation. JAMA 1995, 274:1221-1225.
77. Leis A.A., Stokic D.S., Polk J.L., et al. A poliomyelitis-like syndrome from West Nile virus infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 2002, 347:1279-1280.
78. Leis A.A., Fratkin J., Stokic D.S., et al. West Nile poliomyelitis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2003, 3:9-10.
79. Li J., Loeb J.A., Shy M.E.S., et al. Asymmetric flaccid paralysis: a neuromuscular presentation of West Nile virus infection. Ann Neurol. 2003, 53:703-710.
80. Liedholm L.J., Eeg-Olofsson O., Ekenberg B.E., et al. Acute postasthmatic amyotrophy (Hopkins' syndrome). Muscle Nerve 1994, 17:769-772.
81. Lipshutz A.K., Gropper M.A. Acquired neuromuscular weakness and early mobilization in the intensive care unit. Anesthesiology 2013, 118:202-215.
82. Macfarlane I.A., Rosenthal F.D. Severe myopathy after status asthmaticus. Lancet 1977, 310:615.
83. Matsumoto N., Nakamura T., Yasui Y., et al. Analysis of muscle proteins in acute quadriplegic myopathy. Muscle Nerve 2000, 23:1270-1276.
84. Mehta R., Fisher L.E., Segeleon J.E., et al. Acute rhabdomyolysis complicating status asthmaticus in children: case series and review. Pediatr. Emerg. Care 2006, 22:587-591.
85. Nanas S., Kritikos K., Angelopoulos E.S., et al. Predisposing factors for critical illness polyneuromyopathy in a multidisciplinary intensive care unit. Acta Neurol. Scand, 2008, 118:175-181.
86. Nash D., Mostashari F., Fine A., et al. The outbreak of West Nile virus infection in the New York City area in 1999. N. Engl. J. Med. 2001, 344:1807-1814.
87. Novak K.R., Nardelli P., Cope T.C., et al. Inactivation of sodium channels underlies reversible neuropathy during critical illness in rats. J. Clin Invest 2009, 119:1150-1158.
88. Op De Coul A.A., Lambregts P.C., Koeman J., et al. Neuromuscular complications in patients given Pavulon (pancuronium bromide) during artificial ventilation. Clin Neurol. Neurosurg. 1985, 87:17-22.
89. Pandharipande P., Cotton B.A., Shintani A., et al. Motoric subtypes of delirium in mechanically ventilated surgical and trauma intensive care unit patients. Intensive Care Med. 2007, 33:1726-1731.
90. Papazian L., Forel J.M., Gacouin A., et al. Neuromuscular blockers in early acute respiratory distress syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med. 2010, 363:1107-1116.
91. Parke T.J., Stevens J.E., Rice A.S., et al. Metabolic acidosis and fatal myocardial failure after propofol infusion in children: five case reports. BMJ 1992, 305:613-616.
92. Partridge B.L., Abrams J.H., Bazemore C., et al. Prolonged neuromuscular blockade after long-term infusion of vecuronium bromide in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med. 1990, 18:1177-1179.
93. Poulsen J.B., Moller K., Jensen C.V., et al. Effect of transcutaneous electrical muscle stimulation on muscle volume in patients with septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2011, 39:456-461.
94. Qaseem A., Humphrey L.L., Chou R., et al. Use of intensive insulin therapy for the management of glycemic control in hospitalized patients: a clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern. Med. 2011, 154:260-267.
95. Qureshi A. Diaphragm paralysis. Semin. Respir Crit Care Med. 2009, 30:315-320.
96. Ramsay D.A., Zochodne D.W., Robertson D.M., et al. A syndrome of acute severe muscle necrosis in intensive care unit patients. J. Neuropathol Exp. Neurol. 1993, 52:387-398.
97. Rich M.M., Pinter M.J. Crucial role of sodium channel fast inactivation in muscle fibre inexcitability in a rat model of critical illness myopathy. J. Physiol. 2003, 547:555-566.
98. Rich M.M., Teener J.W., Raps E.C., et al. Muscle is electrically inexcitable in acute quadriplegic myopathy. Neurology 1996, 46:731-736.
99. Rich M.M., Bird S.J., Raps E.C., et al. Direct muscle stimulation in acute quadriplegic myopathy. Muscle Nerve 1997, 20:665-673.
100. Rich M.M., Pinter M.J., Kraner S.D., et al. Loss of electrical excitability in an animal model of acute quadriplegic myopathy. Ann Neurol. 1998, 43:171-179.
101. Roberts R.J., Barletta J.F., Fong J.J.S., et al. Incidence of propofol-related infusion syndrome in critically ill adults: a prospective multicenter study. Crit Care 2009, 13:R169.
102. Rohatgi N., Fields A., Sly R.M. Status asthmaticus complicated by transient phrenic nerve paralysis. Ann Allergy 1980, 45:177-179.
103. Rosenow E.C., Engel A.G. Acid maltase deficiency in adults presenting as respiratory failure. Am. J. Med. 1978, 64:485-491.
104. Routsi C., Gerovasili V., Vasileiadis I., et al. Electrical muscle stimulation prevents critical illness polyneuromyopathy: a randomized parallel intervention trial. Crit Care 2010, 14:R74.
105. Sander H.W., Conigliari M.F., Masdeu J.C. Antecubital phlebotomy complicated by lateral antebrachial cutaneous neuropathy. N. Engl. J. Med. 1998, 339:2024.
106. Santuz P., Piccoli A., Zaglia F., et al. Transient phrenic nerve paralysis associated with status asthmaticus. Pediatr. Pulmonol. 2004, 38:269-271.
107. Schweickert W.D., Pohlman M.C., Pohlman A.S., et al. Early physical and occupational therapy in mechanically ventilated critically ill patients: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2009, 373:1874-1882.
108. Segredo V., Caldwell J.E., Matthay M.A., et al. Persistent paralysis in critically ill patients after long-term administration of vecuronium. N. Engl. J. Med. 1992, 327:524-528.
109. Senes F.M., Campus R., Becchetti F., et al. Upper limb nerve injuries in developmental age. Microsurgery 2009, 29:529-535.
110. Sher J.H., Shafiq S.A., Schutta H.S. Acute myopathy with selective lysis of myosin filaments. Neurology 1979, 29:100-106.
111. Showalter C.J., Engel A.G. Acute quadriplegic myopathy: analysis of myosin isoforms and evidence for calpain-mediated proteolysis. Muscle Nerve 1997, 20:316-322.
112. Sitwell L.D., Weinshenker B.G., Monpetit V., et al. Complete ophthalmoplegia as a complication of acute corticosteroid- and pancuronium-associated myopathy. Neurology 1991, 41:921-922.
113. Small S.P. Preventing sciatic nerve injury from intramuscular injections: literature review. J. Adv. Nurs. 2004, 47:287-296.
114. Steiner I., Argov Z., Cahan C., et al. Guillain-Barré syndrome after epidural anesthesia: direct nerve root damage may trigger disease. Neurology 1985, 35:1473-1475.
115. Stevens R.D., Dowdy D.W., Michaels R.K., et al. Neuromuscular dysfunction acquired in critical illness: a systematic review. Intensive Care Med. 2007, 33:1876-1891.
116. Stevens R.D., Marshall S.A., Cornblath D.R., et al. A framework for diagnosing and classifying intensive care unit-acquired weakness. Crit Care Med. 2009, 37(Suppl):299-308.
117. Stibler H., Edstrom L., Ahlbeck K., et al. Electrophoretic determination of the myosin/actin ratio in the diagnosis of critical illness myopathy. Intensive Care Med. 2003, 29:1515-1527.
118. Strom T., Martinussen T., Toft P. A protocol of no sedation for critically ill patients receiving mechanical ventilation: a randomised trial. Lancet 2010, 375:475-480.
119. Tennila A., Salmi T., Pettila V., et al. Early signs of critical illness polyneuropathy in ICU patients with systemic inflammatory response syndrome or sepsis. Intensive Care Med. 2000, 26:1360-1363.
120. Trojaborg W., Weimer L.H., Hays A.P. Electrophysiologic studies in critical illness associated weakness: myopathy or neuropathy - a reappraisal. Clin. Neurophysiol. 2001, 112:1586-1593.
121. Van Den Berghe G., Schoonheydt K., Becx P., et al. Insulin therapy protects the central and peripheral nervous system of intensive care patients. Neurology 2005, 64:1348-1353.
122. Van Wilgenburg H. The effect of prednisolone on neuromuscular transmission in the rat diaphragm. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 1979, 55:355-361.
123. Vasile B., Rasulo F., Candiani A., et al. The pathophysiology of propofol infusion syndrome: a simple name for a complex syndrome. Intensive Care Med. 2003, 29:1417-1425.
124. Vasilevskis E.E., Ely E.W., Speroff T., et al. Reducing iatrogenic risks: ICU-acquired delirium and weakness - crossing the quality chasm. Chest 2010, 138:1224-1233.
125. Watson M.E. Median nerve damage from brachial artery puncture: a case report. Respir Care 1995, 40:1141-1143.
126. Watson A.C., Hughes P.D., Louise Harris M., et al. Measurement of twitch transdiaphragmatic esophageal and endotracheal tube pressure with bilateral anterolateral magnetic phrenic nerve stimulation in patients in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med. 2001, 29:1325-1331.
127. Wilson R.W., Ward M.D., Johns T.R. Corticosteroids: a direct effect at the neuromuscular junction. Neurology 1974, 24:1091-1095.
128. Witt N.J., Zochodne D.W., Bolton C.F., et al. Peripheral nerve function in sepsis and multiple organ failure. Chest 1991, 99:176-184.
129. Z'Graggen W.J., Lin C.S., Howard R.S., et al. Nerve excitability changes in critical illness polyneuropathy. Brain 2006, 129:2461-2470.
130. Zifko U.A. Long-term outcome of critical illness polyneuropathy. Muscle Nerve Suppl. 2000, 9:S49-S52.
131. Zochodne D.W., Bolton C.F., Wells G.A., et al. Critical illness polyneuropathy. A complication of sepsis and multiple organ failure. Brain 1987, 110:819-841.
132. Zochodne D.W., Ramsay D.A., Saly V., et al. Acute necrotizing myopathy of intensive care: electrophysiological studies. Muscle Nerve 1994, 17:285-292.