Jim crow 2.0? Why states consider and adopt restrictive voter access policies

Perspectives on Politics

Volumn 11, Issue 4, 2013, Pages 1088-1116

  Bentele, Keith G ^a   O'Brien, Erin E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS BOSTON   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84890538490     PISSN: 15375927     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S1537592713002843     Document Type: Review

References (151)

1. AARP. 2012. "Help Stop Voter Suppression in Virginia." (https://action.aarp.org/site/Advocacy?cmddisplay&page-UserAction&id- 1836), accessed March 23, 2012.
2. American Center for Voting Rights, Legislative Fund. August 2005. "Vote Fraud, Intimidation and Suppression in the 2004 Presidential Election." Washington, DC: American Center for Voting Rights.
3. Avery, James M., and Mark Peffley. 2005. "Voter Registration Requirements, Voter Turnout, and Welfare Eligibility Policy." State Politics and Policy Quarterly 5(1): 47-67.
4. Bartels, Larry. 2012. Unequal Democracy: The Political Economy of the New Gilded Age. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
5. Battista, James Coleman. 2011. "Formal and Perceived Leadership Power in U.S. States." State Politics and Policy Quarterly 11(1): 102-118.
6. Battista, James Coleman, and Jesse T. Richman. 2011. "Party Pressure in the U.S. State Legislatures." Legislative Studies Quarterly 36(3): 397-422.
7. Beckett, Katherine, and Bruce Western. 2001. "Governing Social Marginality: Welfare, Incarceration, and the Transformation of State Policy." Punishment & Society 31(1): 43-59.
8. Bentele, Keith, and Lisa Nicoli. 2012. "Ending Access As We Know It: State Welfare Benefit Coverage in the TANF Era." Social Service Review 64(1): 223-68.
9. Berkowitz, Daniel, and Karen B. Clay. 2011. The Evolution of a Nation: How Geography and Law Shaped the American States. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
10. Berman, Ari. August 30, 2011. "The GOP War on Voting." Rolling Stone. (http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/news/the-gop-war-on-voting- 20110830), accessed November 12, 2011.
11. Berry, Frances Stokes, and William D. Berry. 1990. "State Lottery Adoptions as Policy Innovations: An Event History Analysis." American Political Science Review 84(2): 395-415.
12. Berry, William, Evan Ringquist, Richard Fording, and Russell Hanson. 1998. "Measuring Citizen and Government Ideology in the American States, 1960-93. American Journal of Politics 42: 327-348.
13. Bloom, Jordan. 2012. "This Week in Voter ID: AG Holder Challenges Texas, Judge Nixes Wisconsin Law." American Conservative. (http://www.theamericanconservative.com/this-week-in-voter-id-ag-holder- challenges-texas-judge-nixes-wisc-law/), accessed April 7, 2012.
14. Boehmke, Frederick, and Richard Winter. 2004. "Disentangling Diffusion: The Effects of Social Learning and Economic Competition on State Policy Innovation and Expansion." Political Research Quarterly 57(1): 39-51.
15. Brady, Henry, and John McNulty. 2011. "Turning Out to Vote: The Costs of Finding and Getting to the Polling Place." American Political Science Review 105(1): 115-34.
16. Brooks, Sarah M. 2007. "When Does Diffusion Matter? Explaining the Spread of Structural Pension Reforms across Nations." Journal of Politics 69(3): 701-15.
17. Brown, Susan. May 13, 2012. "Voter ID Laws Protect Electoral Process." (http://townhall.com/columnists/susanbrown/2012/03/13/voter-id- laws-protect-electoralprocess/page/full/), accessed April 7, 2012.
18. Bullock, Charles S., III and Ronald K. Gaddie. 2009. The Triumph of Voting Rights in the South. University of Oklahoma Press: Norman.
19. Burden, Barry, David Canon, Kenneth Mayer, and Donald Moynihan. 2009. "The Effects and Costs of Early Voting, Election Day Registration, and Same Day Registration in the 2008 Elections." Report Presented to Pew Charitable Trust. Washington, DC.
20. Burke, Lauren Victoria. March 12, 2012. "Sharpton, CBC Join Forces on Voter Suppression." Politic365 (http://politic365.com/2012/02/17/ sharpton-cbc-join-forces-on-voter-suppression/), accessed December 3, 2013.
21. Cain, Bruce, Todd Donovan, and Caroline Tolbert. 2008. Democracy in the States: Experiments in Election Reform. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
22. Campbell, Don. 2008. "Why Ga. Should Be On GOP's Mind; Tour Atlanta's Suburbs to Get a Sense of Where this Country is Headed. The Minority Population is Booming, and the Math is Decidedly Against the GOP." USA Today. November 18, 11A.
23. Campbell, Tracy. 2006. Deliver the Vote: A History of Election Fraud, an American Political Tradition, 1742-2004. New York, NY: Basic Books.
24. Cohen, Adam. 2009. "Foreword." In Keeping Down the Black Vote: Race and the Demobilization of American Voters, ed. Frances Fox Piven, Lorraine Minnite, and Margaret Groarke. New York, NY: The New Press.
25. Conservative Hideout 2.0. "Rolling Stone Unleashed Voter Disenfranchisement Propaganda." September 2, 2011. (http:// conservativehideout.com/2011/09/02/rolling-stone-unleashes-voter- disenfranchisement-propaganda/), accessed April 7, 2012.
26. Cooper, Michael. 2011. "New State Rules Raising Hurdles at Voting Booth." New York Times, October 2, A1.
27. C-Span Video Library. November 2, 2011. "CBC Hour Voter Identification Laws." House Session, Part 3. (http://www.c-spanvideo.org/ appearance/600750999), accessed March 24, 2012.
28. Davenport, Jim. 2011. "Voter ID Law Hits Black Areas: 1,977 Nonwhite Voters Lack State-Issued Photo." Associated Press, October 19.
29. Dilday, Kay. 2011. "The NAACP Exposes Voter Suppression Schemes." The Guardian. December 6. (http://www.guardian.co.uk/ commentisfree/cifamerica/2011/dec/06/naacp-exposes-voter-suppression-scheme), accessed April 7, 2012.
30. Dougherty, Conor. 2009. "Minority Turnout Was Critical to Obama's Election, Data Show." Wall Street Journal, July 21 (accessed February 13, 2013).
31. Dreier, Pater, and Christopher Martin. 2010. "How ACORN Was Framed: Political Controversy and Media Agenda Setting." Perspectives on Politics 8(3): 761-92.
32. Edelman, Murray. 1964. The Symbolic Uses of Politics. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
33. -. 1988. Constructing the Political Spectacle. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
34. Fenton, John. 1979. "Turnout and the Two-Party Vote." Journal of Politics 41(1): 229-34.
35. Fording, Richard. 2001. "The Political Response to Black Insurgency: A Critical Test of Competing Theories of the State." American Political Science Review 95(1): 115-31.
36. Fortier, John. 2006. Absentee and Early Voting: Trends, Promises, and Perils. Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute Press.
37. Frey, William H. May 2012. "Why Minorities Will Decide the 2012 U.S. Election." Brookings Institution. (http://www.brookings.edu/research/ opinions/2012/05/01-race-elections-frey), accessed February 13, 2013.
38. Frymer, Paul. 1999. Uneasy Alliances: Race and Party Competition in America. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
39. Fund, John. 2008. Stealing Elections: How Voter Fraud Threatens Our Democracy. San Francisco, CA: Encounter Books.
40. Fund, John, and Hans von Spakovsky. 2012. Who's Counting? How Fraudsters and Bureaucrats Put Your Vote at Risk. New York, NY: Encounter Books.
41. Gimpel, James. February 2010. "Immigration, Political Realignment, and the Demise of Republican Political Prospects." Center for Immigration Studies. (http://www.cis.org/republican-demise), accessed April 7, 2012.
42. Glassner, Barry. 1999. The Culture of Fear: Why Americans Are Afraid of theWrong Things. New York: Basic Books.
43. Green, Donald, Bradley Palmquist, and Eric Schickler. 2002. Partisan Hearts and Minds: Political Parties and the Social Identities of Voters. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
44. Greenberg, Mark, Jodie Levin-Epstein, Rutledge Hutson, Theodora Ooms. 2002. "The1996 Welfare Law: Key Elements and Reauthorization Issues Affecting Children." The Future of Children 12(1): 26-40.
45. Greenwald, Robert. 2011. "Help NAACP End Voter Suppression." Huffington Post, December 16. (http://www.huffingtonpost.com/robert-greenwald/ help-naacp-end-voter-supp-b-1154815.html), accessed June 3, 2012.
46. Gronke, Paul, Eva Galanes-Rosenbaum, and Peter A. Miller. 2008. "Early Voting and Voter Turnout." In Democracy in the States: Experiments in Election Reform, ed. Bruce E. Cain, Todd Donovan, and Caroline J. Tolbert. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
47. Gumbel, Andrew. 2005. Steal This Vote: Dirty Elections and the Rotten History of Democracy in America. New York, NY: National Books.
48. Hacker, Jacob, and Paul Pierson. 2011. Winner-Take-All Politics: HowWashington Made the Rich Richer-and Turned Its Back on the Middle Class. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
49. Hasen, Richard. 2012. The VotingWars: From Florida 2000 to the Next Election Meltdown. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
50. Hauser, Jeff. 2013. "A Temporary Victory: Looking Ahead to 2014 and Beyond." Democracy 28(Spring): 32-37.
51. Hawkins, Matt. 2012. "The NC Coastal Conservative Conference: Voter-Fraud-O-Rama." (http://rightwingnews.com/uncategorized/the-nc- coastal-conservative-conference-voterfraudorama-pics/), accessed April 7, 2012.
52. Herron,Michael C., and Daniel A. Smith. 2012. "Souls to the Polls: Early Voting in Florida in the Shadow of House Bill 1355." Election Law Journal 11(3): 331-47.
53. -. 2013. "Early Voting in Florida in the Aftermath of House Bill 1355." State Politics & Policy Quarterly published online before print June 5, 2013, doi:10.1177/1532440013487387.
54. Isaac, Jeffrey, ed. 2012. "Review Symposium: Neoliberalism, Race, and the American Welfare State-A Discussion of Joe Soss, Richard C. Fording, and Sanford F. Schram's Disciplining the Poor: Neoliberal Paternalism and the Persistent Power of Race." Perspectives on Politics 10(4): 979-92.
55. Isreal, John. 2012. "DOJ Opposes New Florida Restriction, Citing Possible Discriminatory Purpose or Effect." Think Progress. March 21. (http://thinkprogress.org/justice/2012/03/21/449068/doj-opposes-new-florida- voting-restrictions/?mobile-nc), accessed March 24, 2012.
56. Jacobs, Lawrence R. 1992. "Institutions and Culture: Health Policy and Public Opinion in the U.S. and Britain." World Politics 44(2): 179-209
57. Jacobs, Lawrence R., and Desmond King, eds. 2009. The Unsustainable American State. New York: Oxford University Press.
58. Jealous, Benjamin Todd. December 14, 2011. NAACAP. "We're Turning the Tide." (http://www.naacp.org/blog/entry/were-turning-the-tide), accessed March 25, 2012.
59. Jenkins, Shannon. 2008. "Party Influence on Roll Call Voting: A View from the U.S. States." State Politics and Policy Quarterly 8(3): 239-62.
60. Judis, John B., and Ruy Teixeira. 2002. The Emerging Democratic Majority. New York: Simon and Schuster.
61. Karch, Andrew. 2007. Democratic Laboratories: Policy Diffusion among the American States. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
62. Katzenstein, Mary Fainsod, Leila Mohsen Ibrahim, and Katherine Rubin. 2007. "Emerging Issues and Future Directions in State Policy Diffusion Research." State Politics and Policy Quarterly 7(1): 54-80.
63. -. 2010. "The Dark Side of American Liberalism and Felony Disenfranchisement." Perspectives on Politics 8(4): 1035-54.
64. Kellogg, Sarah. 2012. "Voter ID Laws: Partisan Electioneering or Good Government?" Washington Lawyer. September 2012. (http://www.dcbar.org/ for-lawyers/resources/publications/washington-lawyer/september-2012/vote.cfm), accessed May 25, 2013.
65. Key, V.O., Jr. 1949. Southern Politics in State and Nation. New York: Knopf.
66. Keyssar, Alexander. (2000) 2009. The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States. New York: Basic Books.
67. -. 2011. "How Americans Vote." Election Law Journal: Rules, Politics, and Policy 10(4): 471-73.
68. -. 2012. "The Strange Career of Voter Suppression." New York Times, February 12.
69. King, Desmond S., and Rogers M. Smith. 2005. "Racial Orders in American Political Development." American Political Science Review 99(1): 75-92.
70. -. 2011. Still a House Divided: Race and Politics in Obama's America. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
71. King, Desmond, Robert C. Lieberman, Gretchen Ritter, and Laurence Whitehead, eds. 2009. Democratization in America: A Comparative-Historical Analysis. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
72. Kingdon, John W. 2002. Agendas, Alternatives and Public Policies. 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley.
73. Levitsky, Steven, and Lucan Way. 2010. Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes after the ColdWar. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
74. Levitt, Justin. 2007. "The Truth about Voter Fraud." The Brennan Center for Justice. New York, NY. (http://www.brennancenter.org/ publication/truth-about-voter-fraud), accessed March 24, 2012.
75. Lindberg, Staffan. 2009. Democratization by Elections: A New Mode of Transition. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press.
76. Maddow, Rachel. 2011a. "Age Against the Machine." October 19. (http://video.msnbc.msn.com/the-rachel-maddow-show/45663037#45663037), accessed March 24, 2012.
77. -. 2011b. "American Democracy a Casualty of Republican War on Voting." October 27. (http://fuckconservatives.wordpress.com/2011/10/27/ rachel-maddow-american-democracy-a-casualty-of-republican-war-on-voting/), accessed March 24, 2012.
78. -. 2011c. "GOP War on Voting Encounters Rising Defense." October 12. (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v-rMpkUsTz8N4), accessed March 24, 2012.
79. -. 2011d. "Republicans Try to Suppress Minority Vote." October 5. (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v-6Vlf6F3fOK0&feature-related), accessed March 24, 2012.
80. Mahanta, Siddharta. 2011. "South Carolina Voter ID Law: Yep, Pretty Discriminating." Mother Jones, October 19.
81. Manza, Jeff, and Christopher Uggen. 2004. "Punishment and Democracy: Disenfranchisement of Nonincarcerated Felons in the United States." Perspectives on Politics 2(3): 491-505.
82. Martin, Gordon. 2012. "Democracy Under Attack in Voter Suppression Scheme." Boston Herald, February 5.
83. Mayhew, David. 1974. The Electoral Connection. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
84. McCarty, Nolan, Keith Poole, and Howard Rosenthal. 2008. Polarized America: The Dance of Ideolog y and Unequal Riches. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
85. Mettler, Suzanne, and Joe Soss. 2004. "The Consequences of Public Policy for Democratic Citizenship: Bridging Policy Studies and Mass Politics." Perspectives on Politics 2(1): 55-73.
86. Meyers, Jim, and Kathleen Walter. 2011. "Ken Blackwell: Holder's 'All-Out War' on Voter IDs Is Obama Re-election Tool." NewMax, March 22. (http://www.newsmax.com/Headline/Blackwell-Holder-Voter-ID/2012/03/22/id/433560) , accessed March 24, 2012.
87. Minnite, Lorraine. 2010. The Myth of Voter Fraud. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
88. Mintrom, Michael. 1997. "Policy Entrepreneurs and the Diffusion of Innovation." American Journal of Political Science 42: 738-70.
89. Mooney, Christopher. 2011. "Modeling Regional Effects on State Policy Diffusion." Political Research Quarterly 54(1): 103-24.
90. Mooney, Christopher Z., and Mei-Hsien Lee. 1995. "Legislating Morality in the American States: The Case of Pre-Roe Abortion Regulation Reform." American Journal of Political Science 39: 599-627.
91. Moreno, Ivan, and Nicolas Riccardi. 2013. "Democrats Strike Back at GOP Voting Measures." Associated Press, May 20. (http://hosted.ap.org/ dynamic/stories/U/US-DEMOCRATS-VOTING?SITE-AP&SECTION-HOME&TEMPLATE- DEFAULT), accessed May 25, 2013.
92. Mundlak, Yair. 1978. "On the Pooling of Times Series and Cross Section Data." Econometrica 46(1): 69-85.
93. Musgrove, George. 2012. Rumor, Repression, and Racial Politics: How the Harassment of Black Elected Officials Shaped Post-Civil Rights America. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press.
94. National Conference of State Legislatures. 2012a. Legislatures & Elections. Elections & Campaigns. Voter ID: State Requirements. (http://www.ncsl.org/legislatures-elections/elections/voter-id-state- requirements.aspx), accessed December 12, 2011.
95. National Conference of State Legislatures. 2012b. Election Reform Legislation Database 2001-2010. (http://www.ncsl.org/research/elections-and- campaigns/2001-2010-database-of-election-reform-legislation.aspx), accessed December 12, 2011.
96. Nice, David. 1994. Policy Innovation in State Government. Ames: Iowa State Press.
97. Noble, Charles. 1997. Welfare asWe Knew It: A Political History of the AmericanWelfare State. New York: Oxford University Press.
98. O'Brien, Erin. 2009. The Politics of Identity: Solidarity Building among America'sWorking Poor. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
99. Overton, Spencer. 2007. Stealing Democracy: The New Politics of Voter Suppression. New York: W.W. Norton.
100. Peters, Guy. 1999. American Public Policy: Promise and Performance. New York: Chatham House.
101. Piven, Frances Fox, and Richard Cloward. 1988. Why Americans Don't Vote. New York, NY: Pantheon.
102. -. 2000. Why Americans Still Don't Vote: And Why PoliticiansWant It ThatWay. Boston: Beacon Press.
103. Piven, Frances Fox, Lorainne Minnite, and Margaret Groarke. 2009. Keeping Down the Black Vote: Race and the Demobilization of American Voters. New York: NYU Press.
104. Powers, Scott, and David Damron. 2013. "Analysis: More than 200,000 would-be voters gave up." Orlando Sentinel, January 19.
105. Rosenstone, Steven, and Raymond Wolfinger. 1978. "The Effect of Registration Laws on Voter Turnout." American Political Science Review 72(1): 22-45.
106. Rosenstone, Steven, and John Mark Hansen. 1993. Mobilization, Participation, and Democracy in America. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.
107. Sabato, Larry, and Glenn Simpson. 1996. Dirty Little Secrets: The Persistence of Corruption in American Politics. New York: Times Books.
108. Schattschneider, E.E. 1942. "Party Government." National Municipal Review 31(4): 220-42.
109. -. 1960. The Semi-Sovereign People: A Realist's View of Democracy in America. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
110. Schedler, Andreas. 2002. "The Nested Game of Democratization by Elections." International Political Science Review 23(1): 103-22.
111. -. 2006. Electoral Authoritarianism: The Dynamics of Unfree Competition. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
112. Schneider, Helen, and Anne Ingram. 1993. "Social Construction of Target Populations: Implications for Politics and Policy." American Political Science Review 87(2): 334-47.
113. Schultz, David A. 2008. "Less than Fundamental: The Myth of Voter Fraud and the Coming of the Second Great Disenfranchisement." William Mitchell Law Review 34: 484.
114. Secrest, Barry. April 3, 2012. "The Real Reason Why Liberals Hate Voter ID." (http://www.conservativerefocus.com/blog5.php/2012/04/03/the- real-reason-why-liberals-hate-voter-id-four-indiana-democrats-charged-with-2008- election-fraud), accessed April 7, 2012.
115. Seitz-Wald, Alex. 2012. "Penn. Republican: Voter ID will help Romney Win." Salon, June 25. (http://www.salon.com/2012/06/25/penn-republican- voter-id-will-help-romney-win/), accessed February 7, 2013.
116. Senate Judiciary Committee. Subcommittee on the Constitution, "Civil Rights and Human Rights: New State Voting Laws: Barriers to the Ballot?" September 8, 2011. (http://www.judiciary.senate.gov/hearings/hearing.cfm?id- 2072649339b2bb3b19d320ce62f6c1b8),accessedMarch 24, 2012.
117. Sharpton, Al. 2011a. Politics Nation MSNBC, December 28. (http://video.msnbc.msn.com/politicsnation/45800286#45800286), accessed March 24, 2012).
118. -. 2011b. "Voter Suppression Laws Appear Across the Country." Politics Nation MSNBC, October 11. (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v-9dJTfATg14I), accessed March 24, 2012.
119. -. 2012. "Voter Suppression Laws 2012." Politics Nation MSNBC, December 7. (http://vimeo.com/33262597), accessed March 24, 2012.
120. Shefter, Martin. 1994. Political Parties and the State: The American Historical Experience. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
121. Shields, Todd. 2012. "Shifting Support for Democratic Party among American Elderly." Blair Center-Clinton School Poll. (http:// blairrockefellerpoll.uark.edu/5292.php), accessed February 8, 2013.
122. Smith, Rogers. 1999. Civic Ideals: Conflicting Visions of Citizenship in U.S. History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
123. Soss, Joe. 2000. Unwanted Claims: The Politics of Participation in the USWelfare System. Ann Arbor,: University of Michigan Press.
124. Soss, Joe, Sanford Schram, Thomas Vartanian, and Erin O'Brien. 2001. "Setting the Terms of Relief: Explaining State Policy Choices in the Devolution Revolution." American Journal of Political Science 45(2): 378-95.
125. Soss, Joe, Richard Fording, and Sanford Schram. 2011. Disciplining the Poor: Neoliberalism and the Persistent Power of Race. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
126. Spakovsky, Hans von. 2011. "Voter ID is a Sensible Precaution." Heritage Foundation, August 6. (http://www.heritage.org/research/commentary/ 2011/08/voter-id-is-a-sensible-precaution?query-Voter-ID-is-a-Sensible- Precaution), accessed September 11, 2013.
127. Stepan, Alfred, and Juan Linz. 2011. "Comparative Perspectives on Inequality and the Quality of Democracy in the United States." Perspectives on Politics 9(4): 841-56.
128. Stewart, Charles. 2011. "Adding Up the Costs and Benefits of Voting by Mail." Election Law Journal 10(3): 297-301.
129. Stone, Deborah. 2002. Policy Paradox: The Art of Political Decision Making. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.
130. Stream, Christopher. 1999. "Health Reform in the States: A Model of State Small Group Health Insurance Market Reforms." Political Research Quarterly 52(3): 499-526.
131. Streb, Matthew J. 2012. Law and Election Politics: The Rules of the Game. New York, NY: Routledge.
132. Teixeira, Mark. 1987. Why Americans Don't Vote: Turnout Decline in the United States. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
133. Timberg, Craig, and Lonnae O'Neal Parker. 2012. "Black Electorate Responds Mightily to Perceived Voter-Intimidation Efforts." Washington Post, November 7. (http://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/decision2012/black- electorate-responds-mightily-to-perceived-voter-intimidation-efforts/2012/11/07/ d7596304-2900-11e2-b4e0-346287b7e56c-story.html), accessed February 5, 2013.
134. True, James, Bryan Jones, and Frank Baumgartner. 2007. "Punctuated-Equilibrium Theory: Explaining Stability and Change in Policy Making." In Theories of the Policy Process, ed. Paul Sabatier. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
135. Tuck, Stephen. 2009. "Reversal of Black Voting Rights after Reconstruction." In Democratization in America: A Comparative-Historical Analysis, ed. Desmond King, Robert C. Lieberman, Gretchen Ritter, and Laurence Whitehead. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
136. Uggen, Christopher, Sarah Shannon, and Jeff Manza. 2012. "State Level Estimates of Felon Disenfranchisement in the United States, 2010." Washington, DC: The Sentencing Project.
137. Underwood, Julie, and Julie Mead. 2012. "A Smart ALEC Threatens Public Education." Kappan Magazine 93(6): 51-55.
138. Valelly, Richard M. 2004. The Two Reconstructions: The Struggle for Black Enfranchisement. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
139. Verba, Sidney, and Norman Nie. 1972. Participation in America. New York: Harper and Row.
140. Verba, Sidney, Kay Lehman Schlozman, andHenry Brady. 1995. Voice and Equality: CivicVoluntarism in American Politics. Cambridge:Harvard University Press.
141. Waldman, Michael, and Justin Levitt. 2007. "The Myth of Voter Fraud." Washington Post, March 29.
142. Wang, Tova A. 2012. The Politics of Voter Suppression: Defending and Expanding Americans' Right to Vote. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
143. Weaver, Velsa M. 2007. "Frontlash: Race and the Development of Punitive Crime Policy." Studies in American Political Development 21: 230-65.
144. Weimer, David, and Aidan Vining. 2004. Policy Analysis: Concepts and Practice. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
145. Weiser, Wendy and Lawrence Norden. 2011. "Voting Law Changes in 2012." Brennan Center for Justice. New York: NYU School of Law. 1-58.
146. -. 2011. "Appendix: Summary of State Laws and Bills." Brennan Center for Justice. New York: NYU School of Law. 59.
147. Weiser, Wendy, and Diana Kasdan. 2012. "Voting Law Changes: Election Update." Brennan Center for Justice. New York: NYU School of Law. 1-41.
148. Wirzbicki, Alan. 2012. "Restrictive Voting Laws Inspire Minority Backlash." Boston Globe, September 29. (http://www.bostonglobe.com/news/ nation/2012/09/28/ohio-voter suppression-efforts-may-galvanizing-african- american-voters/wEaaMnxD2fFhm87Pkp5t4M/story.html), accessed February 5, 2013.
149. Wooldridge, Jeffrey M. 2001. Econometric Analysis of Cross Section and Panel Data. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
150. Wright, Gerald C., and Brian F. Schaffner. 2002. "The Influence of Party: Evidence from the State Legislatures." American Political Science Review 96(2): 367-79.
151. Yost, Pete. 2012. "Texas Voter ID Law Blocked by Justice Department." The Huffington Post, March 12. (http://www.huffingtonpost.com/ 2012/03/12/texas-voter-id-justice-department-n-1339004.html), accessed March 24, 2012.