Maternal and Infant Temperament Characteristics as Contributors to Parenting Stress in the First Year Postpartum

Infant and Child Development

Volumn 22, Issue 6, 2013, Pages 553-579

  Oddi, Kate B ^a   Murdock, Kyle W ^a   Vadnais, Sarah ^a   Bridgett, David J ^a   Gartstein, Maria A ^b  

^a NORTHERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Infant temperament; Maternal temperament; Parenting stress

Indexed keywords

EID: 84889681759     PISSN: 15227227     EISSN: 15227219     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/icd.1813     Document Type: Article

References (98)

1. rd edn.). Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.
2. Anderson, L. (2008). Predictors of parenting stress in a diverse sample of parents of early adolescents in high-risk communities. Nursing Research, 57(5), 340-350. DOI:10.1097/01.NNR.0000313502.92227.87
3. Assel, M. A., Landry, S. H., Swank, P. R., Steelman, L. L., Miller-Loncar, C. C., & Smith, K. E. (2002). How do mothers' childrearing histories, stress and parenting affect children's behavioural outcomes? Child: Care, Health and Development, 28(5), 359-368. DOI:10.1046/j.1365-2214.2002.00285.x
4. Atella, L. D., DiPietro, J. A., Smith, B. A., & St. James-Roberts, I. (2003). More than meets the eye: Parental and infant contributors to maternal and paternal reports of early infant difficultness. Parenting: Science and Practice, 3(4), 265-284. DOI:10.1207/s15327922par0304_1
5. Bardeen, J. R., & Read, J. P. (2010). Attentional control, trauma, and affect regulation: A preliminary investigation. Traumatology, 16(3), 11-18. DOI:10.1177/1534765610362801
6. Baumeister, R. F., Gailliot, M., DeWall, C. N., & Oaten, M. (2006). Self-regulation and personality: How interventions increase regulatory success, and how depletion moderates the effects of traits on behavior. Journal of Personality, 74(6), 1773-1801. DOI:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00428.x
7. Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., & Steer, R. A. (1988). An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56(6), 893-897. DOI:10.1037//0022-006X.56.6.893
8. Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Manual for the Beck Depression Inventory-II. San Antonio: Psychological Corporation.
9. Bigras, M., LaFreniere, P. J., & Dumas, J. E. (2010). Discriminant validity of the parent and child scales of the Parenting Stress Index. Early Education & Development, 7(2), 167-178. DOI: 10.1207/s15566935eed0702_5
10. van den Boom, D. C. (1994). The influence of temperament and mothering on attachment and exploration: An experimental manipulation of sensitive responsiveness among lower-class mothers with irritable infants. Child Development, 65(5), 1457-1477.
11. Bowling, N. A., Beehr, T. A., & Swader, W. M. (2005). Giving and receiving social support at work: The roles of personality and reciprocity. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 67(3), 476-489. DOI:10.1016/j.jvb.2004.08.004
12. Bridgett, D. J., Burt, N. M., Laake, L. M., & Oddi, K. B. (2013). Maternal self-regulation, relationship adjustment, and home chaos: Contributions to infant negative emotionality. Infant Behavior & Development, 36(4), 534-547. DOI:10.1016/j.infbeh.2013.04.004
13. Bridgett, D. J., Gartstein, M. A., Putnam, S. P., Lance, K. O., Iddins, E., Waits, R., Lee, L. (2011). Emerging effortful control in toddlerhood: The role of infant orienting/regulation, maternal effortful control, and maternal time spent in caregiving. Infant Behavior & Development, 34(1), 189-199. DOI: 10.1016/j.infbeh.2010.12.008
14. Bridgett, D. J., Oddi, K. B., Laake, L. M., Murdock, K. W., & Bachmann, M. N. (2013). Integrating and differentiating aspects of self-regulation: Effortful control, executive functioning, and links to negative affectivity. Emotion 13(1), 47-63. DOI: 10.1037/a0029536
15. Brummelte, S., Grunau, R. E., Synnes, A. R., Whitfield, M. F., & Petrie-Thomas, J. (2011). Declining cognitive development from 8 to 18months in preterm children predicts persisting higher parenting stress. Early Human Development, 87(4), 273-280. DOI:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2011.01.030
16. Busch, H., & Hofer, J. (2012). Self-regulation and milestones of adult development: Intimacy and generativity. Developmental psychology, 48(1), 282. DOI:10.1037/a0025521
17. Calkins, S. D., & Fox, N. A. (1992). The relations among infant temperament, security of attachment, and behavioral inhibition at twenty-four months. Child Development, 63(6), 1456-1472. DOI:10.2307/1131568
18. Cardoso, J. B., Padilla, Y. C., & Sampson, M. (2010). Racial and ethnic variation in the predictors of maternal parenting stress. Journal of Social Service Research, 36(5), 429-444. DOI:10.1080/01488376.2010.510948
19. Carver, C. S. (1997). Adult attachment and personality: Converging evidence and a new measure. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23(8), 865-883. DOI:10.1177/0146167297238007
20. Coleman, P. K., & Karraker, K. H. (2003). Maternal self-efficacy beliefs, competence in parenting, and toddlers' behavior and developmental status. Infant Mental Health Journal, 24(2), 126-148. DOI:10.1002/imhj.10048
21. Cooper, C. E., McLanahan, S. S., Meadows, S. O., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2009). Family structure transitions and maternal parenting stress. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 71(3), 558-574. DOI:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2009.00619.x
22. Cutrona, C. E., & Troutman, B. R. (1986). Social support, infant temperament, and parenting self-efficacy: A mediational model of postpartum depression. Child Development, 57(6), 1507-1518. DOI:10.2307/1130428
23. Deater-Deckard, K. (1998). Parenting stress and child adjustment: Some old hypotheses and new questions. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 5(3), 314-332. DOI:10.1111/j.1468-2850.1998.tb00152.x
24. Deater-Deckard, K., Sewell, M. D., Petrill, S. A., & Thompson, L. A. (2010). Maternal working memory and reactive negativity in parenting. Psychological Science, 21(1), 75-79. DOI:10.1177/0956797609354073
25. van Diest, I., De Peuter, S., Eertmans, A., Bogaerts, K., Victoir, A., & van den Bergh, O. (2005). Negative affectivity and enhanced symptom reports: Differentiating between symptoms in men and women. Social Science & Medicine, 61(8), 1835-1845. DOI:10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.03.031
26. Eisenberg, N., & Sulik, M. J. (2012). Emotion-related self-regulation in children. Teaching of Psychology, 39(1), 77-83. DOI:10.1177/0098628311430172
27. Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., & Spinrad, T. L. (1998). Parental socialization of emotion. Psychological Inquiry, 9(4), 241-273. DOI:10.1207/s15327965pli0904_1
28. Evans, D. E., & Rothbart, M. K. (2007). Developing a model for adult temperament. Journal of Research in Personality, 41(4), 868-888. DOI:10.1016/j.jrp.2006.11.002
29. Gartstein, M. A., & Rothbart, M. K. (2003). Studying infant temperament via the revised Infant Behavior Questionnaire. Infant Behavior & Development, 26(1), 64-86. DOI:10.1016/S0163-6383(02)00169-8
30. Gartstein, M. A., Bridgett, D. J., Young, B. N., Pankseep, J., & Power, T. (2013). Origins of effortful control: Infant and parent contributions. Infancy, 18(2), 149-183. DOI: 10.1111/j.1532-7078.2012.00119.x.
31. Gartstein, M. A., Knyazev, G. G., & Slobodskaya, H. R. (2005). Cross-cultural differences in the structure of infant temperament: United States of America (U.S.) and Russia. Infant Behavior & Development, 28(1), 54-61. DOI:10.1016/j.infbeh.2004.09.003
32. Gelfand, D. M., Teti, D. M., & Fox, C. E. (1992). Sources of parenting stress for depressed and nondepressed mothers of infants. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 21(3), 262-273. DOI:10.1207/s15374424jccp2103_8
33. Geng, F., Hu, Y., Wang, Y., & Chen, F. (2011). Two types of behavioral inhibition: Relations to effortful control and attention in school children. Journal of Research in Personality, 45(6), 662-669. DOI:10.1016/j.jrp.2011.09.005
34. Graham, J. W. & Schafer, J. L. (1999). On the performance of multiple imputation for multivariate data with small sample size. In R. Hoyle (Ed.), Statistical Strategies for Small Sample Research, 1-29, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
35. Graham, J. W. (2009). Missing data analysis: Making it work in the real world. Annual review of psychology, 60, 549-576. DOI:10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085530
36. Guralnick, M. J., Neville, B., Connor, R. T., & Hammond, M. A. (2003). Family factors associated with the peer social competence of young children with mild delays. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 108(4), 272-287. DOI: 10.1352/0895-8017(2003)108<272:FFAWTP>2.0.CO;2
37. Hutcheson, J. J., & Black, M. M. (1996). Psychometric properties of the Parenting Stress Index in a sample of low-income African-American mothers of infants and toddlers. Early Education and Development, 7(4), 381-400. DOI:10.1207/s15566935eed0704_5
38. Joiner, T. R., Catanzaro, S. J., & Laurent, J. (1996). Tripartite structure of positive and negative affect, depression, and anxiety in child and adolescent psychiatric inpatients. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105(3), 401-409. DOI:10.1037/0021-843X.105.3.401
39. Jorm, A. F., Christensen, H., Henderson, A., Jacomb, P. A., Korten, A. E., & Rodgers, B. (2000). Predicting anxiety and depression from personality: Is there a synergistic effect of neuroticism and extraversion? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(1), 145-149. DOI:10.1037/0021-843X.109.1.145
40. Jylhä, P., & Isometsä, E. (2006). The relationship of neuroticism and extraversion to symptoms of anxiety and depression in the general population. Depression and Anxiety, 23(5), 281-289. DOI:10.1002/da.20167
41. Khosla, M. (2006). Positive affect and coping with stress. Journal of the Indian Academy Of Applied Psychology, 32(3), 281-288. http://www.jiaap.in/
42. Laurent, H. K., Ablow, J.C., & Measelle, J. (2012). Taking stress response out of the box: Stability, discontinuity, and temperament effects on HPA and SNS across social stressors in mother-infant dyads. Developmental Psychology, 48(1), 35-45. DOI:10.1037/a0025518
43. Lavee, Y., Sharlin, S., & Katz, R. (1996). The effect of parenting stress on marital quality: An integrated mother-father model. Journal of Family Issues, 17(1), 114-135. DOI:10.1177/019251396017001007
44. Leerkes, E. M., & Burney, R. V. (2007). The development of parenting efficacy among new mothers and fathers. Infancy, 12(1), 45-67. DOI:10.1111/j.1532-7078.2007.tb00233.x
45. Malouff, J. M., Thorsteinsson, E.B., Schutte, N. S., Bhullar, N., & Rooke, S E. (2010). The Five-Factor Model of personality and relationship satisfaction of intimate partners: A meta-analysis. Journal of Research in Personality, 44(1), 124-127. DOI:10.1016/j.jrp.2009.09.004
46. Mangelsdorf, S. C., McHale, J. L., Diener, M., Goldstein, L., & Lehn, L. (2000). Infant attachment: Contributions of infant temperament and maternal characteristics. Infant Behavior & Development, 23(2), 175-196. DOI:10.1016/S0163-6383(01)00035-2
47. Mäntymaa, M., Puura, K., Luoma, I., Latva, R., Salmelin, R. K., & Tamminen, T. (2012). Predicting internalizing and externalizing problems at five years by child and parental factors in infancy and toddlerhood. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 43(2), 153-170. DOI:10.1007/s10578-011-0255-0
48. Martorell, G. A., & Bugental, D. (2006). Maternal variations in stress reactivity: Implications for harsh parenting practices with very young children. Journal of Family Psychology, 20(4), 641-647. DOI:10.1037/0893-3200.20.4.641
49. McClowry, S. G. (1998). The science and art of using temperament as the basis for intervention. School Psychology Review, 27(4), 551-563. http://www.nasponline.org/publications/spr
50. McClowry, S. G., Rodriguez, E. T., & Koslowitz, R. (2008). Temperament-based intervention: Re-examining goodness of fit. International Journal of Developmental Science, 2(1), 120-135. http://www.iospress.nl/journal/international-journal-of-developmental-science/
51. McConnell, D. D., Breitkreuz, R. R., & Savage, A. A. (2011). From financial hardship to child difficulties: Main and moderating effects of perceived social support. Child: Care, Health and Development, 37(5), 679-691. DOI:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2010.01185.x
52. McCrae, R. R., Costa, P. R., Ostendorf, F., Angleitner, A., Hřebíčková, M., Avia, M. D., Smith, P. B. (2000). Nature over nurture: Temperament, personality, and life span development. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(1), 173-186. DOI:10.1037/0022-3514.78.1.173
53. Mesman, J., & Koot, H. M. (2000). Common and specific correlates of preadolescent internalizing and externalizing psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(3), 428-437. DOI:10.1037/0021-843X.109.3.428
54. Mills-Koonce, W. R., Appleyard, K., Barnett, M., Deng, M., Putallaz, M., & Cox, M. (2011). Adult attachment style and stress as risk factors for early maternal sensitivity and negativity. Infant Mental Health Journal, 32(3), 277-285. DOI:10.1002/imhj.20296
55. Misri, S., Kendrick, K., Oberlander, T. F., Norris, S., Tomfohr, L., Zhang, H., & Grunau, R. E. (2010). Antenatal depression and anxiety affect postpartum parenting stress: A longitudinal, prospective study. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 55(4), 222-228. http://publications.cpa-apc.org/browse/sections/0
56. Morris, A. S., Silk, J. S., Steinberg, L., Myers, S. S., & Robinson, L. R. (2007). The role of the family context in the development of emotion regulation. Social Development, 16(2), 361-388. DOI:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00389.x.
57. Muris, P., van der Pennen, E., Sigmond, R., & Mayer, B. (2008). Symptoms of anxiety, depression, and aggression in non-clinical children: Relationships with self-report and performance-based measures of attention and effortful control. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 39(4), 455-467. DOI:10.1007/s10578-008-0101-1
58. Neece, C., & Baker, B. (2008). Predicting maternal parenting stress in middle childhood: The roles of child intellectual status, behavior problems and social skills. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 52(12), 1114-1128. DOI:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2008.01071.x
59. Neece, C. L., Green, S. A., & Baker, B. L. (2012). Parenting stress and child behavior problems: A transactional relationship across time. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 117(1), 48-66. DOI: 10.1352/1944-7558-117.1.48
60. Olafsen, K. S., Kaaresen, P. I., Handegård, B. H., Ulvund, S. E., Dahl, L. B., & Rønning, J. A. (2008). Maternal ratings of infant regulatory competence from 6 to 12months: Influence of perceived stress, birth-weight, and intervention: A randomized controlled trial. Infant Behavior & Development, 31(3), 408-421. DOI:10.1016/j.infbeh.2007.12.005
61. Oldehinkel, A. J., Hartman, C. A., Nederhof, E., Riese, H., & Ormel, J. (2011). Effortful control as a predictor of adolescents' psychological and physiological responses to a social stress test: The Tracking Adolescents' Individual Lives Survey. Development and Psychopathology, 23(2), 679-688. DOI:10.1017/S0954579411000095
62. Oliver, J., & Brough, P. (2002). Cognitive appraisal, negative affectivity and psychological well-being. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 31(1), 2-7. http://www.psychology.org.nz/NZ_Journal
63. Östberg, M., & Hagekull, B. (2000). A structural modeling approach to the understanding of parenting stress. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29(4), 615-625. DOI:10.1207/S15374424JCCP2904-13
64. Parade, S. H., & Leerkes, E. M. (2008). The reliability and validity of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised. Infant Behavior & Development, 31(4), 637-646. DOI:10.1016/j.infbeh.2008.07.009
65. Passino, A. W., Whitman, T. L., Borkowski, J. G., Schellenbach, C. J., Maxwell, S. E., Keogh, D.A., & Rellinger, E. (1993). Personal adjustment during pregnancy and adolescent parenting. Adolescence, 28(109), 97-122. http://www.elsevier.com
66. Pesonen, A., Räikkönen, K., Heinonen, K., Komsi, N., Järvenpää, A., & Strandberg, T. (2008). A transactional model of temperamental development: Evidence of a relationship between child temperament and maternal stress over five years. Social Development, 17(2), 326-340. DOI:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00427.x
67. Pettit, G. S., Keiley, M. K., Laird, R. D., Bates, J. E., & Dodge, K. A. (2007). Predicting the developmental course of mother reported monitoring across childhood and adolescence from early proactive parenting, child temperament, and parents' worries. Journal of Family Psychology, 21(2), 206-217. DOI:10.1037/0893-3200.21.2.206
68. Pridham, K. F., Chang, A. S., & Chiu, Y. (1994). Mothers' parenting self-appraisals: The contribution of perceived infant temperament. Research in Nursing & Health, 17(5), 381-392. DOI:10.1002/nur.4770170509
69. Probst, J. C., Wang, J.-Y., Martin, A. B., Moore, C. G., Paul, B.M., & Samuels, M. E. (2008). Potentially violent disagreements and parenting stress among American Indian/Alaska native families: Analysis across seven states. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 12(1), 91-102. DOI: 10.1007/s10995-008-0370-0
70. Raikes, H. A., & Thompson, R. A. (2005). Efficacy and social support as predictors of parenting stress among families in poverty. Infant Mental Health Journal, 26(3), 177-190. DOI:10.1002/imhj.20044
71. Reece, S. M. (1993). Social support and the early maternal experience of primiparas over 35. The American Journal of Maternal Child Nursing, 21(3), 91-98. http://journals.lww.com/mcnjournal
72. Rodriguez, C. M. (2011). Association between independent reports of maternal parenting stress and children's internalizing symptomatology. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 20(5), 631-639. DOI:10.1007/s10826-010-9438-8
73. Rothbart, M. K. (1986). A psychobiological approach to the study of temperament. In G. A. Kohnstamm (Ed.), Temperament discussed: Temperament and development in infancy and childhood (pp. 63-72). Lisse Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger Publishers.
74. Rothbart, M. K. (2011). Becoming who we are: Temperament and personality in development. New York, NY US: Guilford Press.
75. Rothbart, M. K., & Ahadi, S. A. (1994). Temperament and the development of personality. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103(1), 55-66. DOI:10.1037/0021-843X.103.1.55
76. Rothbart, M. K., & Derryberry, D. (1981). Development of individual differences in temperament. In M.E. Lamb, & A. L. Brown (Eds.), Advances in developmental psychology, (Vol. 1, pp. 37-86). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
77. Rothbart, M. K., & Sheese, B. E. (2007). Temperament and emotion regulation. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 331-350). New York, NY US: Guilford Press.
78. Rothbart, M. K., Ahadi, S. A., & Evans, D. E. (2000). Temperament and personality: Origins and outcomes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(1), 122-135. DOI:10.1037/0022-3514.78.1.122
79. Rothbart, M. K., Derryberry, D., & Posner, M. I. (1994). A psychobiological approach to the development of temperament. In J.E. Bates, & T.D. Wachs (Eds.), Temperament: Individual differences at the interface of biology and behavior (pp. 83-116). Washington, DC US: American Psychological Association.
80. Scher, A., & Sharabany, R. (2005). Parenting anxiety and stress: Does gender play a part at 3months of age? Journal of Genetic Psychology, 166(2), 203-213. DOI:10.3200/GNTP.166.2.203-214
81. Schneewind, K. A., & Kupsch, M. (2007). Patterns of neuroticism, work-family stress, and resources as determinants of personal distress: A cluster analysis of young, dual-earner families at the individual and couple level. Journal of Individual Differences, 28(3), 150-160. DOI:10.1027/1614-0001.28.3.150
82. Schneider, T. R., Rench, T. A., Lyons, J. B., & Riffle, R. R. (2012). The influence of neuroticism, extraversion and openness on stress responses. Stress and Health: Journal of the International Society for the Investigation of Stress, 28(2), 102-110. DOI:10.1002/smi.1409
83. Secco, M. L., & Moffatt, M. E. K. (2003). Situational, maternal, and infant influences on parenting stress among adolescent mothers. Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing, 26(2), 103-122. DOI:10.1080/01460860390197862
84. Seifer, R., Schiller, M., Sameroff, A.J., Resnick, S., & Riordan, K. (1996). Attachment, maternal sensitivity, and infant temperament during the first year of life. Developmental Psychology, 32(1), 12-25. DOI:10.1037/0012-1649.32.1.12
85. Shaver, P. R., & Brennan, K. A. (1992). Attachment styles and the 'Big Five' personality traits: Their connections with each other and with romantic relationship outcomes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18(5), 536-545. DOI:10.1177/0146167292185003
86. Sheinkopf, S. J., Lester, B. M., LaGasse, L. L., Seifer, R., Bauer, C. R., Shankaran, S., Wright, L. L. (2005). Interactions between maternal characteristics and neonatal behavior in the prediction of parenting stress and perception of infant temperament. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 31(1), 27-40. DOI:10.1093/jpepsy/isio26
87. Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., Silva, K. M., Eggum, N. D., Reiser, M., Edwards, A., & Gaertner, B. M. (2012). Longitudinal relations among maternal behaviors, effortful control and young children's committed compliance. Developmental Psychology, 48(2), 552-566. DOI:10.1037/a0025898
88. SPSS for Windows 9.0 [Computer software]. (2010). Armonk, NY: IBM Inc.
89. Swickert, R. J., Hittner, J. B., & Foster, A. (2010). Big five traits interact to predict perceived social support. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(6), 736-741. DOI:10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.018
90. Tarlow, E. M., & Haaga, D. F. (1996). Negative self-concept: Specificity to depressive symptoms and relation to positive and negative affectivity. Journal of Research in Personality, 30(1), 120-127. DOI:10.1006/jrpe.1996.0008
91. Tikotzky, L., Chambers, A. S., Gaylor, E., & Manber, R. (2010). Maternal sleep and depressive symptoms: Links with infant negative affectivity. Infant Behavior & Development, 33(4), 605-612. DOI:10.1016/j.infbeh.2010.07.012
92. Troutman, B., Moran, T. E., Arndt, S., Johnson, R. F., & Chmielewski, M. (2012). Development of parenting self-efficacy in mothers of infants with high negative emotionality. Infant Mental Health Journal, 33(1), 45-54. DOI:10.1002/imhj.20332
93. Verstraeten, K., Vasey, M. W., Raes, F., & Bijttebier, P. (2009). Temperament and risk for depressive symptoms in adolescence: Mediation by rumination and moderation by effortful control. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37(3), 349-361. DOI:10.1007/s10802-008-9293-x
94. Voegtline, K. M., & Stifter, C. A. (2010). Late-preterm birth, maternal symptomatology, and infant negativity. Infant Behavior & Development, 33(4), 545-554. DOI:10.1016/j.infbeh.2010.07.006
95. Von Dras, D. D., & Siegler, I. C. (1997). Stability in extraversion and aspects of social support at midlife. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(1), 233-241. DOI:10.1037/0022-3514.72.1.233
96. Watson, D., Clark, L.A., & Carey, G. (1988). Positive and negative affectivity and their relation to anxiety and depressive disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97(3), 346-353. DOI:10.1037/0021-843X.97.3.346
97. Williford, A. P., Calkins, S. D., & Keane, S. P. (2007). Predicting change in parenting stress across early childhood: Child and maternal factors. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 251-263. DOI:10.1007/s10802-006-9082-3
98. Zhang, Y., & Fang, X. (2010). Relationship between emotion self-regulation difficulties and marital quality among Chinese urban newlyweds. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 18(6), 783-785. http://www.oriprobe.com/journals/zglcxlxzz.html