Phytoremediation of Soils Contaminated with Organic Pollutants

Biophysico-Chemical Processes of Anthropogenic Organic Compounds in Environmental Systems

Volumn , Issue , 2011, Pages 503-516

  White, Jason C ^a   Newman, Lee A ^b  

^a Northeast Regional Center for Excellence in Vector Borne Diseases   (United States)

^b BROOKHAVEN NATIONAL LABORATORY   (United States)

Author keywords

Augmenting phytoremedial success; Organic contaminant phytoremediation mechanisms; Soil phytoremediation contaminated with organic pollutants

Indexed keywords

EID: 84886348341     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9780470944479.ch20     Document Type: Chapter

References (110)

1. Aitchison, E. W., Kelley, S. L., Alvarez, P. J., and Schnoor, J. L. (2000), Phytoremediation of 1,4-dioxane by hybrid poplar trees, Water Environ. Res. 72, 313-321.
2. Aprill, W. and Sims, R. C. (1990), Evaluation of the use of prairie grasses for stimulating polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon treatment in soil, Chemosphere 20, 253-265.
3. Arnold, C. W., Parfitt, D. G., and Kaltreider, M. (2007), Phytovo-latilization of oxygenated gasoline-impacted groundwater at an underground storage tank site via conifers. Internat. J. Phytorem. 9, 53-72.
4. Aslund, M. L. W. Rutter, A. Reimer, K. J., and Zeeb, B. A. (2008), The effects of repeated planting, planting density, and specific transfer pathways on PCB uptake by Cucurbita pepo grown in field conditions, Sci. Total Environ. 405, 14-25.
5. Baduru, K. K., Trapp, S. T., and Burken, J. G. (2008), Direct measurement of VOC diffusivities in tree tissues: Impacts on tree-based phytoremediation, Environ. Sci. Technol. 42, 1268-1275.
6. Banks, M. K., Lee, E., and Schwab, A. P. (1999), Evaluation of dissipation mechanisms forbenzo(a)pyrene in the rhizosphere of tall fescue, J. Environ. Qual. 28, 294-298.
7. Barac, T., Taghavi, S., Greenberg, B., Borremans, B., Provoost, A., Oeyen, L., Colpaert, J., Vangronsveld, J., and van der Lelie, N. (2004), Engineered endophytic bacteria improve phytoremedia-tion of water soluble, volatile organic pollutants, Nat. Biotech-nol. 22, 583-588.
8. Bhadra, R., Wayment, D. G., Hughes, J. B., and Shanks, J. V. (1999), Confirmation of conjugation processes during TNT metabolism by axenic plants. Environ. Sci. Technol. 33, 446-452.
9. Boyle, J. J. and Shann, J. R. (1998), The influence of planting and soil characteristics on mineralization of 2,4,5-T in rhizosphere soil, J. Environ. Qual. 27, 704-709.
10. Brandt, R., Merkl, N., Schultze-Kraft, R., Infante, C., and Broll, G. (2006), Potential of Vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides (L) Nash) for phytoremediation of petroleum hydrocarbon-contaminated soils in Venezuela, Int. J. Phytoremed. 8, 273-284.
11. Briggs, G. G., Bromilow, R. H., and Evans, A. A. (1982), Relationships between lipophilicity and root uptake and translocation of non-ionized chemicals by barley. Pest. Sci. 13, 495-504.
12. Burken, J. G. and Schnoor, J. L. (1998), Predictive relationships for uptake of organic contaminants by hybrid poplar trees, Environ. Sci. Technol. 32, 3379-3385.
13. Burken, J. G. and J. L. Schnoor, (2001), Distribution and volatilization of organic compounds following uptake by hybrid poplar trees, Int. J. Phytoremed, 2, 139-153.
14. Chard, B. K., Doucetter, W. J., Chard, J. K., Bugbee, B., and Gorder, K. (2006), Trichloroethylene uptake by apple and peach trees and transfer to fruit, Environ. Sci. Technol. 40, 4788-4793.
15. Collins, C., Laturnus, F., and Nepovin, A. (2002), Remediation of BTEX and trichloroethylene: Current knowledge with special emphasis on phytoremediation, Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 9, 86-94.
16. Dettenmaier, E. M., Doucette, W. J., and Bugbee, B. (2009), Chemical hydrophobicity and uptake by plant roots, Environ. Sci. Technol. 43, 324-329.
17. Dietz, A. C. and Schnoor, J. L. (2001), Phytotoxicity of chlorinated aliphatics to hybrid poplar (Populus deltoides x Nigra DN34), Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 20, 389-393.
18. Doty, S.L., Shang, T. Q., Wilson, A. M., Tangen, J., Westergreen, A. D., Newman, L. A., Strand, S. E., and Gordon, M. P. (2000), Enhanced metabolism of halogenated hydrocarbons in transgenic plants containing mammalian cytochrome P450 2E1, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97, 6287-6291.
19. Doty, S. L., James, C. A., Moore, A. L., Vajzovic, A., Singleton, G. L., Ma, C., Khan, Z., Xin, G., Kang, J. W., Park, J. Y., Meilan, R., Strauss, S. H., Wilkerson, J., Farin, F., and Strand, S. E. (2007), Enhanced phytoremediation of volatile environmental pollutants with transgenic trees, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104, 16816-16821.
20. Doucette, W. J., Bugbee, B., Hayhurst, S., and Pajak, C. J. S. G. (2003), Uptake, metabolism, and phytovolatilization of trichloroethylene by indigenous vegetation: Impact of precipitation, in Phytoremediation: Transformation and Control of Contaminants, Mc-Cutcheon, S. C.; and Schnoor, J. L. eds., Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, pp. 561-588.
21. Doucette, W. J., Chard, J. K., Fabrizius, H., Crouch, C., Petersen, M. R., Carlsen, T. E., Chard, B. K., and Gorder, K. (2007), Trichloroethylene uptake into fruits and vegetables: Three-year field monitoring study, Environ. Sci. Technol. 41, 2505-2509.
22. Ferro, A., Kennedy, J., Doucette, W., Nelson, S., Jauregui, G., McFar-land, B., and Bugbee, B. (1997), Fate of benzene in soils planted with alfalfa: uptake, volatilization, and degradation. in Phytore-mediation of Soil and Water Contaminants, Kruger, E. L., Anderson, T. A., and Coats, J. R. eds., American Chemical Society, ACS Symposium Series 664, Washington, DC, pp. 223-237.
23. Ferro, A., Rock, S. A., Kennedy, J., Herrick, J. J., and Turner, D. L. (1999), Phytoremediation of soils contaminated with wood preservatives: greenhouse and field evaluations, Int. J. Phytor-emed. 1, 289-306.
24. French, C. E., Rosser, S. J., Davies, G. J., Nicklin, S., and Bruce, N. C. (1999), Biodegradation of explosives by transgenic plants expressing pentaerythritol tetranitrate reductase, Nat. Biotechnol. 17, 491-494.
25. Gent, M. P. N., Parrish, Z. D., and White, J. C. (2005), Exudation of citric acid and nutrient uptake among subspecies of cucurbita, J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 130, 782-788.
26. Gopalakrishnan, G., Negri, M. C., Minsker, B. S., and Werth, C. J. (2007), Monitoring subsurface contamination using tree branches, Ground Water Monit. Remed. 27, 65-74.
27. Hadden, C. B. (2007), The Phyto-and Photodegradation ofRDXby Plants in the Lamiaceae Family, master's thesis, University of South Carolina Arnold School of Public Health, Environmental Health Sciences, Columbia, SC.
28. Hagen, P. E. and Walls, M. P. (2005), The stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, Nat. Resour. Environ. 19, 49-52.
29. Hannink, N., Rosser, S. J., and Bruce, N. C. (2002), Phytoremediation of explosives, Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 21, 511-538.
30. Harvey, P. J., Campanell, B. F., Castro, P. M. L., Harms, H., Lichtfouse, E., Schaffner, A. R., Smrcek, S., and Werck-Reichhart, D. (2002), Phytoremediation of polyaromatic hydrocarbons, anilines, and phenols, Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 9, 29-47.
31. Hong, M. S., Farmayan, W. F., Dortch, I. J., Chiang, C. Y., McMillan, S. K., and Schnoor, J. L. (2001), Phytoremediation of MTBE from a groundwater plume, Environ. Sci. Technol. 35, 1231-1239.
32. Hughes, J. B., Shanks, J. V., Vanderford, M., and Lauritzen, J. (1997), Transformation of TNT by aquatic plants and plant tissue cultures, Environ. Sci. Technol. 31, 266-271.
33. Hulster, A., Muller, J. F., and Marschner, H. (1994), Soil-plant transfer of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofur-ans to vegetables of the cucumber family (Cucurbitaceae), Environ. Sci. Technol. 28, 1110-1115.
34. Hutchinson, S. L., Banks, M. K., and Schwab, A. P. (2001), Phytoremediation of aged petroleum sludge: Effect of inorganic fertlizer, J. Environ. Qual. 30, 395-403.
35. James, C. A., Xin, G., Doty, S. L., and Strand, S. E. (2008), Degradation of low molecular weight volatile organic compounds by plants genetically modified with mammalian cyto-chrome P450 2E1, Environ. Sci. Technol. 42, 289-293.
36. James, C. A., Doty, S. L., Muiznieks, I., Newman, L. A., and Strand, S. E. (2009), A mass balance study of the phytoremediation of perchloroethylene contaminated groundwater, Environ. Pollut. 157, 2564-2569.
37. Just, C. L. and Schnoor, J. L. (2004), Phytophotolysis of hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine in leaves of reed canary grass, Environ. Sci. Technol. 38, 290-295.
38. Kelly, B. C. and Gobas, F. A. P. C. (2001), Bioaccumulation of persistent organic pollutants in lichen-caribou-wolf food chains of Canada's central and western arctic, Environ. Sci. Technol. 35, 325-334.
39. Kucerova, P., in der Weische, C., Wolter, M., Macek, T., Zadrazil, F., and Mackova, M. (2001), The ability of different plant species to remove polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls from incubation media, Biotechnol. Lett. 23, 1355-1359.
40. Kurumata, M., Takahashi, M., Sakamoto, A., Ramos, J. L., Nepovim, A., Vanek, T., Hirata, T., and Morikawa, H. (2005), Tolerance to, and uptake and degradation of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) are enhanced by the expression of a bacterial nitroreductase gene in Arabidopsis, Thal. Z. Naturforsch [C] 60, 272-278.
41. Landmeyer, J. E., Vroblesky, D. A., and Bradley, P. M. (2000), MtBE and BTEX in trees growing above gasoline-contaminated ground water Proc. 2nd Int. Conf. Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds May 22-25, Monterey, 2000, CA.
42. Larsen, M., Karlson, U., Burken, J. G., Machackova, J., and Trapp, S. (2008), Using tress core samples to monitor natural attenuation ad plume distribution of a PCE contamination, Environ. Sci. Technol. 42, 1711-1717.
43. Leigh, M. B., Fletcher, J. S., Fu, X., and Schmitz, F. J. (2002), Root turnover: an important source of microbialsubstrates in rhizo-sphere remediation of recalcitrant contaminants. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36, 1579-1583.
44. Liste, H.-H. and Alexander, M. (2000), Plant-promoted pyrene degradation in soil, Chemosphere 40, 7-10.
45. Lunney, A. I., Zeeb, B. A., and Reimer, K. J. (2004), Uptake of weathered DDT in vascular plants: Potential for phytoremedia-tion, Environ. Sci. Technol. 38, 6147-6154.
46. Ma, X. and Burken, J. G. (2003), Diffusion of TCE to the atmosphere in phytoremediation applications, Environ. Sci. Technol. 37, 2534-2539.
47. Ma, X., Richter, A. R., Albers, S., and Burken, J. G. (2004), Phytoremediation of MTBE with hybrid poplar trees, Int. J. Phytoremed. 6, 157-168.
48. Mattina, M. I., Iannucci-Berger, W., Dykas, L., and Pardus, J. (1999), Impact of long-term weathering, mobility, and land use on chlordane residues in soil, Environ. Sci. Technol. 33, 2425-2431.
49. Mattina, M. I., Iannucci-Berger, W., and Dykas, L. (2000), Chlordane uptake and its translocation in food crops, J. Agric. Food Chem. 48, 1909-1915.
50. Mattina, M. I., Isleyen, M., Eitzer, B. D., Iannucci-Berger, W., and White, J. C. (2006), Uptake by Cucurbitaceae of soil-borne contaminants depends upon plant genotype and pollutant properties, Environ. Sci. Technol. 40, 1814-1821.
51. Medina, V. F. and McCutcheon, S. C. (1996), Phytoremediation: Modeling removal of TNT and its breakdown products, Remediation 6, 31-45.
52. Medina, V. F., Larson, S. L., Bergstedt, A. E., and McCutcheon, S. C. (2000), Phytoremoval of trinitrotoluene from water using batch kinetics studies, Water Resour. Res. 34, 2713-2722.
53. Mezzari, M. P., Van Aken, B., Yoon, J. M., and Schnoor J. L. (2004), Mathematical modeling of RDX and HMX metabolism in poplar (Populus deltoides x nigra DN34) tissue culture, Int. J. Phytoremed. 6, 323-345.
54. Moore, F. P., Barac, T., Borremans, B, Oeyen, L., Vangronsveld, J., van derLelie, N., Campbell, C., and Moore, R. B. (2006), Endophytic bacterial diversity in poplar trees growing on a BTEX-contami-nated site: The characterization of isolates with potential to enhance phytoremediation, Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 29, 539-556.
55. Narayanan, M., Davis, L. C., Tracy, J. C., Erickson, L. C., and Green, R. M. (1995a), Experimental and modeling studies of the fate of organic contaminants in the presence of alfalfa plants, J. Hazard. Mater. 41, 229-249.
56. Narayanan, M., Davis, L. C., and Erickson, L. C. (1995b), Fate of volatile chlorinated organic compounds in a laboratory chamber with alfalfa plants, Environ. Sci. Technol. 29, 2437-2444.
57. Nash, R. G. and Woolson, E. A. (1967), Persistence of chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides in soil, Science 157, 924-927.
58. Nedunuri, K. V., Govindaraju, R. S., Banks, M. K., Schwab, A. P., and Chen, Z. (2000), Evaluation of phytoremediation for field-scale degradation of total petroleum hydrocarbons, J. Environ. Eng. 126, 483-490.
59. Newman, L. A., Strand, S. E., Choe, N., Duffy, J., Ekuan, G., Ruszaj, M., Shurtleff, B. B., Wilmoth, J., Heilman, P., and Gordon, M. P. (1997), Uptake and biotransformation of trichloroethylene by hybrid poplars, Environ. Sci. Technol. 31, 1062-1067.
60. Newman, L. A., Cortellucci, R., Crampton, R. S., Domroes, D., Duffy, J., Ekuan, G., Gordon, M. P., Hashmonay, R. A., Heilman, P., Karscig, G., Muiznieks, I. A., Newman, T., Ruszaj, M., Wang, X., Yost, M. G., and Strand, S. E. (1999), Remediation of trichloroethylene in an artificial aquifer with trees: A controlled field study, Environ. Sci. Technol. 33, 2257-2265.
61. Newman, L. A. and Arnold, C. W. (2003), Phytoremediation of MTBE: A review of the state of the technology, in MTBE Remediation Handbook, Moyer, E. E.and Kostecki, P. T. eds., Amherst Scientific Publications, Amherst MA, pp. 279-287.
62. Olson, P. E., Castro, A., Joern, M., DuTeau, N. M., Pilon-Smits, E. A. H., and Reardon, K. F. (2007), Comparison of plant families in a greenhouse phytoremediation study on an aged polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-contaminated soil, J. Environ. Qual. 36, 1461-1469.
63. Palazzo, J. and Leggett, D. C. (1986), Effect and deposition of TNT in a terrestrial plant, J. Environ. Qual. 15, 49-52.
64. Parrish, Z. D., Banks, M. K., and Schwab, A. P. (2004), Effectiveness of phytoremediation as a secondary treatment for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in composted soil, Int. J. Phy-toremed. 6, 119-137.
65. Peters, R. P., Kelsey, J. W., and White, J. C. (2007), Differences in p,p'-DDE bioaccumulation from compost and soil by the plants Cucurbitapepo and C. maxima and the earthworms Eiseniafetidaand Lumbricus terrestris Environ. Pollut. 148, 539-545.
66. Pier, M. D., Zeeb, B. A., and Reimer, K. J. (2002), Patterns of contamination among vascular plants exposed to local sources of polychlorinated biphenyls in the Canadian arctic and subarctic, Sci. Total Environ. 297, 215-227.
67. Pilon-Smits, E. (2005), Phytoremediation, Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 56, 15-39.
68. Pradhan, S. P., Conrad, J. R., Paterek, J. R., and Srivastava, V. J. (1998), Potential of phytoremediation for treatment of PAHs in soil at MGP sites, J. Soil Contam. 7, 467-480.
69. Puri, R. K., Qiuping, Y., Kapila, S., Lower, W. R., and Puri, V. (1997), Plant uptake and metabolism of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), in Plants for Environmental Studies, Wang, W., Gorsuch, J. W., and Hughes, J. S. eds., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 481-513.
70. Quinn, J. J., Negri, M. C., Hinchman, R. R., Moos, L. M., Wozniak, J. B., and Gatliff, E. G. (2001), Predicting the effect of deep-rooted hybrid poplars on the groundwater flow system at a phytoremediation site, Int. J. Phytoremed. 3, 41-60.
71. Quinn, J. J. and Johnson, R. L. (2005), Continuous water level monitoring in the assessment of groundwater remediation and refinement of a conceptual site model, Remediation 15, 49-61.
72. Rezek, J., derWeische, C., Mackova, M., Zadrazil, F., and Macek, T. (2008), The effect of ryegrass (Lolium perenne) on decrease of PAH content in long term contaminated soil, Chemosphere 70, 1603-1608.
73. Ritter, L., Solomon, K. R., Forget, J., Stemeroff, M., and O'Leary, C. (1995), Persistent Organic Pollutants, prepared for the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) within the framework of the Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals (IOMC), United Nations Environment Program.
74. Robinson, S. L., Novak, J. T., Widdowson, M. A., Crosswell, S. B., and Fetterolf, G. J. (2003), Field and laboratory evaluation of the impact of tall fescus on polyaromatic hydrocarbon degradation in an aged creosote-contaminated surface soil, J. Environ. Eng. 129, 232-240.
75. Rubin, E. and Ramaswami, A. (2001), The potential for phytoremediation of MTBE, Water Resour. Res. 35, 1348-1353.
76. Rylott, E. L., Jackson, R. G., Edwards, J., Womack, G. L., SethSmith, H. M. B., Rathbone, D. A., Strand, S. E., and Bruce, N. C. (2006), An explosive-degrading cytochrome P450 activity and its targeted application for the phytoremediation of RDX, Nat. Biotechnol. 24, 216-219.
77. Sandermann, H., Jr., (1992), Plant metabolism of xenobiotics, Trends Biochem. Sci. 17, 82-84.
78. Sandermann, H., Jr., (1994), Higher plant metabolism of xenobiotics: The &green liver& concept, Pharmacogenetics 4, 225-241.
79. Schnoor, J. L. Light, L. A., McCutchen, S. C., Wolfe, N. L., and Carrie, L. H. (1995), Phytoremediation of organic and nutrient contaminants, Environ. Sci. Technol. 29, 318A-323A.
80. Schnoor, J. L. (2002), Phytoremediation of Soil and Groundwater, Technical Evaluation Report 02-01, Ground Water Remediation Technologies Analysis Center, Pittsburgh, PA.
81. Schwitzguebel, J.-P., Kumpiene, J., Comino, E., and Vanek, T. (2009), From green to clean: A promising and sustainable approach towards environmental remediation and human health for the 21st century, Agrochimica 53, 209-237.
82. Shang, T. Q., Doty, S. L., Wilson, A. M., Howald, W. N., and Gordon, M. P. (2001), Trichloroethylene oxidative metabolism in plants: The trichloroethanol pathway, Phytochemistry 58, 1055-1065.
83. Shuttleworth, K. L. and Cerniglia, C. E. (1995), Environmental aspects of PAH biodegradation, Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 54, 291-302.
84. Sims, R. C. and Overcash, M. R. (1983), Fate of polynuclear aromatic compounds (PNAs) in soil-plant systems, Res. Rev. 88, 1-68.
85. Singer, A. C., Crowley, D. E., and Thompson, I. P. (2003), Secondary plant metabolites in phytoremediation and biotransformation, Trends Biotechnol. 21, 123-130.
86. Struckoff, G., Burken, J. G., and Schumaker, J. (2005), Phytoremediation of vadose zone VOC's, Environ. Sci. Technol. 39, 1563-1568.
87. Strycharz, S. and Newman, L. A. (2009a), Use of native plants for remediation of trichloroethylene: I. Deciduous trees, Int. J. Phytoremed. 11, 150-170.
88. Strycharz, S. and Newman, L. A. (2009b), Use of native plants for remediation of trichloroethylene: I. Coniferous trees, Int. J. Phytoremed. 11, 171-186.
89. Taghavi, S., Barac, T., Greenberg, B., Borremans, B., Vangronsveld, J., and van der Lelie, N. (2005), Horizontal gene transfer to endogenous endophytic bacteria from poplar improves phytor-emediation of toluene, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71, 8500-8505.
90. Thompson, P. L., Ramer, L. A., and Schnoor, J. L. (1998), Uptake and transformation of TNT by a poplar hybrid, Environ. Sci. Technol. 32, 975-980.
91. USEPA, (U.S., Environmental Protection Agency) (2003), Deployment of Phytotechnology in the 317/319 Area at Argonne National Laboratory-East: Innovative Technology Evaluation Report, National Risk Management Research Laboratory Office of Research and Development, EPA/540/R-05/ 011.
92. Van Aken, B., Yoon, J. M., Just, C. L., and Schnoor, J. L. (2004a), Metabolism and mineralization of hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) inside poplar tissues (Populus deltoides x nigra DN34), Environ. Sci. Technol. 38, 4572-4579.
93. Van Aken, B., Yoon, J. M., and Schnoor, J. L. (2004b), Biodegradation of nitro-substituted explosives TNT, RDX and HMX by a phytosymbiotic Methylobacterium sp. associated with poplar tissues (Populus deltoides x nigra DN34), Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70, 508-517.
94. Van Aken, B., Peres, C. M., Lafferty-Doty, S., Yoon, J. M., and Schnoor, J. L. (2004c), Methylobacterium sp. Nov.: A new aerobic, pink-pigmented, facultatively methylotrophic bacterium from poplar trees (Populus deltoides x nigra DN34), Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 54, 1191-1196.
95. van Dillewijn, P., Couselo, J. L., Corredoira, E., Delgado, A., Wittich, R.-M., Ballester, A., and Ramos, J. L. (2008), Biore-mediation of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene by bacterial nitroreductase expressing transgenic aspen, Environ. Sci. Technol. 42, 7405-7410.
96. Vanderford, M., Shanks, J. V., and Hughes, J. B. (1997), Phyto-transformation of trinitrotoluene (TNT) and distribution of metabolic products in Myriophyllum aquaticum, Biotechnol. Lett. 19, 277-280.
97. Vanek, T., Nepovim, A., Podlipna, R., Hebner, A., Vavrikova, Z., Gerth, A., Thomas, H., and Smrcek, S. (2006), Phytoremediation of explosives in toxic wastes, in Soil and Water Pollution Monitoring, Protection and Remediation, NATO Science Series, IV: Earth and Environmental Sciences, pp. 455-465.
98. Vroblesky,D.A, Nietchang, C. T., and Morris, J. (1999), Chlorinated ethenes from groundwater in tree trunks, Environ. Sci. Technol. 33, 510-515.
99. Walton, B. T and Anderson, T. A. (1990), Microbial degradation of trichloroethylene in the rhizosphere: Potential application to biological remediation of waste sites, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56, 1012-1016.
100. Wang, X., Dossett, M. P., Gordon, M. P., and Strand, S. E. (2004), Fate of carbon tetrachloride during phytoremediation with poplar under controlled field conditions, Environ. Sci. Technol. 38, 5744-5749.
101. White, J. C. and Kottler, B. D. (2002), Citrate-mediated increase in the uptake of weathered p,p'-DDE residues by plants, Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 21, 550-556.
102. White, J. C., Wang, X., Gent, M. P. N., Iannucci-Berger, W., Eitzer, B. D., Schultes, N. P., Arienzo, M., and Mattina, M. I. (2003), Subspecies-level variation in the phytoextraction of weathered p,p'-DDE by Cucurbita pepo, Environ. Sci. Technol. 37, 4368-4373.
103. White, J. C., Parrish, Z. D., Iseleyen, M., Gent, M. P. N., Iannucci-Berger, W., Eitzer, B. D., and Mattina, M. I. (2005), Uptake of weathered p,p'-DDE by plant species effective at accumulating soil elements, Microchem. J. 81, 148-155.
104. White, J. C., Parrish, Z. D., Iseleyen, M., Gent, M. P. N., Iannucci-Berger, W., Eitzer, B. D., Kelsey, J. W., and Mattina, M. I. (2006a), Influence of citric acid amendments on the availability of weathered PCBs to plant and earthworm species, Int. J. Phytoremeded. 8, 63-79.
105. White, J. C., Parrish, Z. D., Iseleyen, M., Gent, M. P. N., Iannucci-Berger, W., Eitzer, B. D., and Mattina, M. I. (2006b), Soil amendments, plant age, and intercropping impact DDE bioavail-ability to C. pepo, J. Environ. Qual. 35, 992-1000.
106. White, J. C., Peters, R. P., and Kelsey, J. W. (2007), Surfactants impact p,p'-DDE accumulation by plant and earthworm species, Environ. Sci. Technol. 41, 2922-2929.
107. White, P. M., Wolf, D. C., Thoma, G. J., and Reynolds, C. M. (2003), Influence of organic and inorganic soil amendments on plant growth in crude oil-contaminated soil, Int. J. Phytoremed. 5, 381-397.
108. Yi, H. and Crowley, D. E. (2007), Biostimulation of PAH degradation with plants containing high concentrations of linoleic acid, Environ. Sci. Technol. 41, 4382-4388.
109. Yoon, J. M., Oh, B. T., Just, C. L., and Schnoor, J. L. (2002), Uptake and leaching of octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine by hybrid popular trees. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36, 4649-4655.
110. Zeeb, B. A., Amphelett, J. S, Rutter, A., and Reimer, K. J. (2006), Potential for phytoremediation of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) contaminated soil, Int. J. Phytoremed. 8, 199-221.