Pain and Paresthesia in Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's Disease: Non-Motor and Non-Dopaminergic Features

Volumn , Issue , 2011, Pages 315-332

  Lim, Shen Yang ^a   Evans, Andrew H ^b,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MALAYSIA   (Malaysia)

^b ROYAL MELBOURNE HOSPITAL   (Australia)

^c UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE   (Australia)

Author keywords

Central pain; Dyskinesia; Extra nigral features; Neuropathic pain; Non motor symptoms; Pain; Parkinson's disease; Parkinsonian pain; Sensitization

Indexed keywords

EID: 84885489149     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9781444397970.ch29     Document Type: Chapter

References (228)

1. Quittenbaum BH, Grahn B. Quality of life and pain in Parkin-son's disease: a controlled cross-sectional study. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2004;10:129-36.
2. Negre-Pages L, Regragui W, Bouhassira D, et al.; DoPaMiP Study Group. Chronic pain in Parkinson's disease: the cross-sectional French DoPaMiP survey. Mov Disord 2008;23:1361-9.
3. Quinn NP, Koller WC, Lang AE, Marsden CD. Painful Parkin-son's disease. Lancet 1986;i:1366-9.
4. Ford B. Pain in Parkinson's disease. Clin Neurosci 1998;5:63-72.
5. Witjas T, Kaphan E, Azulay JP, et al. Nonmotor fluctuations in Parkinson's disease: frequent and disabling. Neurology 2002;59(3):408-13.
6. Goetz CG, Tanner CM, Levy M, et al. Pain in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 1986;1:45-9.
7. Sekeff-Sallem FA, Barbosa ER. Diagnostic pitfalls in Parkin-son's disease: case report. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 2007;65:348-51.
8. da Silva EG, Viana MA, Quagliato EMAB. Pain in Parkinson's disease: analysis of 50 cases in a clinic of movement disorders. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 2008;66:26-9.
9. Goetz CG, Wilson RS, Tanner CM, Garron DC. Relationships among pain, depression, and sleep alterations in Parkinson's disease. Adv Neurol 1987;45:345-7.
10. Shang AB, King SA. Parkinson's disease, depression, and chronic pain. Hosp Commun Psychiatry 1991;42:1162-3.
11. Factor SA, Molho ES. Emergency department presentations of patients with Parkinson's disease. Am J Emerg Med 2000;18:209-15.
12. Koller WC. Sensory symptoms in Parkinson's disease. Neurology 1984;34:957-9.
13. Tison F, Wenning GK, Volonte MA, et al. Pain in multiple system atrophy. J Neurol 1996;243:153-6.
14. Schrag A, Geser F, Stampfer-Kountchev M, et al. Health-related quality of life in multiple system atrophy. Mov Disord 2006;21:809-15.
15. Elliott AM, Smith BH, Penny KI, et al. The epidemiology of chronic pain in the community. Lancet 1999;354:1248-52.
16. Etchepare F, Rozenberg S, Mirault T, et al. Back problems in Parkinson's disease: an underestimated problem. Joint Bone Spine 2006;73:298-302.
17. Gagliese L, Melzack R. Chronic pain in elderly people. Pain 1997;70:3-14.
18. Giuffrida R, Vingerhoets FJ, Bogousslavsky J, Ghika J. Syn-dromes douloureux de la maladie de Parkinson (Pain in Parkinson's disease). Rev Neurol 2005;161:407-18.
19. Lee MA, Walker RW, Hildreth TJ, Prentice WM. A survey of pain in idiopathic Parkinson's disease. J Pain Symptom Manage 2006;32:462-9.
20. Tinazzi M, Del Vesco C, Fincati E, et al. Pain and motor com-plications in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2006;77:822-5.
21. Karlsen KH, Larsen JP, Tandberg E, Maland JG. Quality of life measurements in patients with Parkinson's disease: a community-based study. Eur J Neurol 1998;5:443-50.
22. Riley D, Lang AE, Blair RDG, et al. Frozen shoulder and other shoulder disturbances in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neuro-surg Psychiatry 1989;52:63-6.
23. Broetz D, Eichner M, Gasser T, et al. Radicular and nonradic-ular back pain in Parkinson's disease: a controlled study. Mov Disord 2007;22:853-6.
24. Snider SR, Fahn S, Isgreen WP, Cote LJ. Primary sensory symptoms in parkinsonism. Neurology 1976;26:423-9.
25. Mott S, Kenrick M, Dixon M, Bird G. Pain as a sequela of Parkinson disease. Aust Fam Physician 2004;33:663-4.
26. Chudler EH, Dong WK. The role of the basal ganglia in noci-ception and pain. Pain 1995;60:3-38.
27. Vela L, Facca A, Lyons K, Lieberman AN. Pain and Parkin-son's disease. Mov Disord 2002;17(Suppl 5):154-5.
28. Clifford TJ, Warsi MJ, Burnett CA, Lamey PJ. Burning mouth in Parkinson's disease sufferers. Gerodontology 1998;15:73-8.
29. Ford B, Louis ED, Greene P, Fahn S. Oral and genital pain syndromes in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 1996;11:421-6.
30. Karlsen KH, Larsen JP, Tandberg E, Maland JG. Influence of clinical and demographic variables on quality of life in patients with Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychi-atry 1999;66; 431-5.
31. Starkstein SE, Preziosi TJ, Robinson RG. Sleep disorders, pain, and depression in Parkinson's disease. Eur Neurol 1991;31: 352-5.
32. Quinn N, Critchley P, Marsden CD. Young onset Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 1987;2:73-91.
33. Kumar N, Van Gerpen JA, Bower JH, Ahlskog JE. Levodopa-dyskinesia incidence by age of Parkinson's disease onset. Mov Disord 2005;20:342-66.
34. Riley DE, Lang AE. The spectrum of levodopa-related fluctuations in Parkinson's disease. Neurology 1993;43:1459-64.
35. Schott GD. Pain in Parkinson's disease. Pain 1985;22:407-11.
36. Scherder E, Wolters E, Polman C, et al. Pain in Parkinson's disease and multiple sclerosis: its relation to the medial and lateral pain systems. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2005;29:1047-56.
37. Schestatsky P, Kumru H, Valls-Solé J, et al. Neurophysio-logic study of central pain in patients with Parkinson disease. Neurology 2007;69:2162-9.
38. Cleeves L, Findley L. Frozen shoulder and other shoulder disturbances in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1989;52:813-4.
39. Sage JI. Pain in Parkinson's disease. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2004;6:191-200.
40. Berg D, Becker G, Reiners K. Reduction of dyskinesia and induction of akinesia induced by morphine in two parkinsonian patients with severe sciatica. J Neural Transm 1999;106:725-8.
41. Ilson J, Fahn S, Cote L. Painful dystonic spasms in Parkinson's disease. Adv Neurol. 1984;40:395-8.
42. Sage JI, Kortis HI, Sommer W. Evidence for the role of spinal cord systems in Parkinson's disease-associated pain. Clin Neu-ropharmacol 1990;13:171-4.
43. Nausieda PA, Weiner WJ, Klawans HL. Dystonic foot response of Parkinsonism. Arch Neurol 1980;37:132-6.
44. Katzenschlager R, Costa D, Gacinovic S, Lees AJ. [123I]-FP-CIT-SPECT in the early diagnosis of PD presenting as exercise-induced dystonia. Neurology 2002;59:1974-6.
45. Merskey H, Bogduk N, eds. Classification of Chronic Pain: Descriptions of Chronic Pain Syndromes and Definitions of Pain Terms. Prepared by the Task Force on Taxonomy of the International Association for the Study of PainASP. 2nd edn. Seattle: IASP Press, 1994.
46. Boivie J. Central pain and the role of quantitative sensory testing (QST) in research and diagnosis. Eur J Pain 2003;7:339-43.
47. Woolf CJ, Mannion RJ. Neuropathic pain: aetiology, symp-toms, mechanisms, and management. Lancet 1999;353: 1959-64.
48. Attal N, Bouhassira D. Can pain be more or less neuropathic? Pain 2004;110:510-1.
49. Rasmussen PV, Sindrup SH, Jensen TS, Bach FW. Symptoms and signs in patients with suspected neuropathic pain. Pain 2004;110:461-9.
50. Cantello R, Aguggia M, Gilli M, et al. Analgesic action of methylphenidate on parkinsonian sensory symptoms. Mech-anisms and pathophysiological implications. Arch Neurol 1988;45:973-6.
51. Pasternak GW, Inturrisi CE. Feeling pain? Who's your daddy. Nat Med 2006;12:1243-4.
52. Rainville P. Brain mechanisms of pain affect and pain modu-lation. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2002;12:195-204.
53. Scherder EJA, Sergeant JA, Swaab DF. Pain processing in dementia and its relation to neuropathology. Lancet Neurol 2003;2:677-86.
54. Willis WD Jr. The somatosensory system, with emphasis on structures important for pain. Brain Res Rev 2007;55:297-313.
55. Millan MJ. Descending control of pain. Prog Neurobiol 2002;66:355-474.
56. Zubieta JK, Smith YR, Bueller JA, et al. Regional mu opioid receptor regulation of sensory and affective dimensions of pain. Science 2001;293:311-5.
57. Becerra L, Breiter HC, Wise R, et al. Reward circuitry activation by noxious thermal stimuli. Neuron 2001;32:927-46.
58. Hagelberg N, Jaaskelainen SK, Martikainen IK, et al. Striatal dopamine D2 receptors in modulation of pain in humans: a review. Eur J Pharmacol 2004;500:187-92.
59. Cole LJ, Farrell MJ, Gibson SJ, Egan GF. Age-related differ-ences in pain sensitivity and regional brain activity evoked by noxious pressure. Neurobiol Aging 2010;31:494-503.
60. Lindvall O, Bjorklund A, Skagerberg G. Dopamine-containing neurons in the spinal cord: anatomy and some functional aspects. Ann Neurol 1983;14:255-60.
61. Nutt JG, Carter JH. Sensory symptoms in parkinsonism related to central dopaminergic function. Lancet 1984;ii: 456-7.
62. Fleetwood-Walker SM, Hope PJ, Mitchell R. Antinociceptive actions of descending dopaminergic tracts on cat and rat dor-sal horn somatosensory neurones. J Physiol 1988;399:335-48.
63. Clemens S, Rye D, Hochman S. Restless legs syndrome: revisiting the dopamine hypothesis from the spinal cord perspective. Neurology 2006;67:125-30.
64. Manning BH, Merin NM, Meng ID, Amaral DG. Reduction in opioid- and cannabinoid-induced antinociception in Rhesus monkeys after bilateral lesions of the amygdaloid complex. J Neurosci 2001;21:8238-46.
65. Helmchen C, Mohr C, Erdmann C, et al. Differential cerebellar activation related to perceived pain intensity during noxious thermal stimulation in humans: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Neurosci Lett 2003;335:202-6.
66. Altier N, Stewart J. The role of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens in analgesia. Life Sci 1999;65:2269-87.
67. Gear RW, Aley KO, Levine JD. Pain-induced analgesia mediated by mesolimbic reward circuits. J Neurosci 1999;19: 7175-81.
68. Melzack R, Casey KL. Sensory, motivational and central con-trol determinants of pain: a new conceptual model. In: Ken-shalo DR, ed. The Skin Senses. Springfield, IL: CC Thomas, 1968:423-39.
69. Price DD. Psychological and neural mechanisms of the affec-tive dimension of pain. Science 2000;288:1769-1772.
70. Moisset X, Bouhassira D. Brain imaging of neuropathic pain. NeuroImage 2007;37:S80-S88.
71. George MS, Ketter TA, Parekh PI, Horwitz B, et al. Brain activity during transient sadness and happiness in healthy women. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:341-51.
72. Rauch SL, Savage CR, Alpert NM, et al. A positron emission tomographic study of simple phobic symptom provocation. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1995;52:20-8.
73. Vogt BA, Derbyshire S, Jones AK. Pain processing in four regions of human cingulate cortex localized with co-registered PET and MR imaging. Eur J Neurosci 1996;8:1461-73.
74. Drevets WC, Price JL, Simpson JR Jr, et al. Subgenual prefrontal cortex abnormalities in mood disorders. Nature 1997;386:824-7.
75. Lane RD, Reiman EM, Bradley MM, et al. Neuroanatomical correlates of pleasant and unpleasant emotion. Neuropsycholo-gia 1997;35:1437-44.
76. Mayberg HS, Brannan SK, Mahurin RK, et al. Cingulate func-tion in depression: a potential predictor of treatment response. NeuroReport 1997;8:1057-61.
77. Blood AJ, Zatorre RJ, Bermudez P, Evans AC. Emotional responses to pleasant and unpleasant music correlate with activity in paralimbic brain regions. Nat Neurosci 1999;2:382-7.
78. Francis S, Rolls ET, Bowtell R, et al. The representation of pleasant touch in the brain and its relationship with taste and olfactory areas. NeuroReport 1999;10:453-9.
79. Bornhövd K, Quante M, Glauche V, et al. Painful stimuli evoke different stimulus-response functions in the amygdala, pre-frontal, insula and somatosensory cortex: a single-trial fMRI study. Brain 2002;125:1326-36.
80. Petrovic P, Petersson KM, Hansson P, Ingvara M. Brain-stem involvement in the initial response to pain. NeuroImage 2004;22:995-1005.
81. Benarroch EE. Pain-autonomic interactions. Neurol Sci 2006;27:S130-3.
82. Baron R, Levine JD, Fields HL. Causalgia and reflex sympa-thetic dystrophy: does the sympathetic nervous system con-tribute to the generation of pain? Muscle Nerve 1999;22:678-95.
83. Braak H, Sastre M, Bohl JRE, et al. Parkinson's disease: lesions in dorsal horn layer I, involvement of parasympathetic and sympathetic pre- and postganglionic neurons. Acta Neu-ropathol 2007;113:421-9.
84. Lim SY, Farrell MJ, Gibson SJ, et al. Do dyskinesia and pain share common pathophysiological mechanisms in Parkinson disease? Mov Disord 2008;23:1689-95.
85. Lim SY, Fox SH, Lang AE. Overview of the extranigral aspects of Parkinson's disease. Arch Neurol 2009; 66: 167-72.
86. Henderson JM, Carpenter K, Cartwright H, Halliday GM. Loss of thalamic intralaminar nuclei in progressive supranu-clear palsy and Parkinson's disease: clinical and therapeutic implications. Brain 2000;123:1410-21.
87. Rub U, Del Tredici K, Schultz C, et al. Parkinson's disease: the thalamic components of the limbic loop are severely impaired by a-synuclein immunopositive inclusion body pathology. Neurobiol Aging 2002;23:245-54.
88. Braak H, Del Tredici K, Rüb U, et al. Staging of brain pathol-ogy related to sporadic Parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Aging 2003;24:197-211.
89. Taly AB, Muthane UB. Involvement of peripheral nervous system in juvenile Parkinson's disease. Acta Neurol Scand 1992;85:272-5.
90. Okuma Y, Hattori N, Mizuno Y. Sensory neuropathy in auto-somal recessive juvenile parkinsonism (PARK2). Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2003;9:313-4.
91. Djaldetti R, Shifrin A, Rogowski Z, et al. Quantitative mea-surement of pain sensation in patients with Parkinson disease. Neurology 2004;62:2171-5.
92. Brefel-Courbon C, Payoux P, Thalamas C, et al. Effect of lev-odopa on pain threshold in Parkinson's disease: a clinical and positron emission tomography study. Mov Disord 2005; 20:1557-63.
93. Urakami K, Takahashi K, Matsushima E, et al. The threshold of pain and neurotransmitter's change on pain in Parkinson's disease. Jpn J Psychiatry Neurol 1990;44:589-93.
94. Battista AF, Wolff BB. Levodopa and induced-pain response: a study of patients with parkinsonian and pain syndromes. Arch Intern Med 1973;132:70-4.
95. Slaoui T, Gerdelat-Mas A, Ory-Magne F, et al. Levodopa changes pain thresholds in Parkinson disease (PD) patients. Mov Disord 2006;21(Suppl 15):S503.
96. Vela L, Baron M, Barriga FJ, et al. Levodopa does not raise pain-pressure threshold in Parkinson disease. Mov Disord 2006;21(Suppl 15):S496.
97. Decina P, Mukherjee S, Caracci G, Harrison K. Painful sen-sory symptoms in neuroleptic-induced extrapyramidal syn-dromes. Am J Psychiatry 1992;149:1075-80.
98. Miley DP, Abrams AA, Atkinson JH, Janowsky DS. Successful treatment of thalamic pain with apomorphine. Am J Psychiatry 1978;135:1230-2.
99. Stuginski-Barbosa J, Rodrigues GGR, Bigal ME, Speciali JG. Burning mouth syndrome responsive to pramipexole. J Headache Pain 2008;9:43-5.
100. Trenkwalder C, Paulus W, Walters AS. The restless legs syn-drome. Lancet Neurol 2005;4:465-75.
101. Ertas M, Sagduyu A, Arac N, et al. Use of levodopa to relieve pain from painful symmetrical diabetic polyneuropathy. Pain 1998;75:257-9.
102. Holman AJ, Myers RR. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of pramipexole, a dopamine agonist, in patients with fibromyalgia receiving concomitant medica-tions. Arthritis Rheum 2005;52(8):2495-505.
103. Dickey RP, Minton JP. Levodopa relief of bone pain from breast cancer. N Engl J Med 1972;286:843.
104. Paalzow GH. L-Dopa induces opposing effects on pain in intact rats: (-)-sulpiride, SCH 23390 or a-methyl-dl-p-tyrosine methyle ster hydrochloride reveals profound hyper-algesia in large antinociceptive doses. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1992;263:470-9.
105. Shyu BC, Kiritsy-Roy JA, Morrow TJ, Casey KL. Neurophysi-ological, pharmacological and behavioral evidence for medial thalamic mediation of cocaine-induced dopaminergic analgesia. Brain Res 1992;572:216-23.
106. Sánchez-González MA, Garćia-Cabezas MA, Rico B, Cavada C. The primate thalamus is a key target for brain dopamine. J Neurosci 2005;25:6076-83.
107. Kupers R, Kehlet H. Brain imaging of clinical pain states: a critical review and strategies for future studies. Lancet Neurol 2006;5:1033-44.
108. Guttman M, Boileau I, Warsh J, et al. Brain serotonin trans-porter binding in non-depressed patients with Parkinson's disease. Eur J Neurol 2007;14:523-8.
109. Mayeux R, Stern Y, Williams JB, et al. Clinical and biochemical features of depression in Parkinson's disease. Am J Psychiatry 1986;143:756-9.
110. Matsubara K, Fukushima S, Akane A, et al. Increased urinary morphine, codeine and tetrahydropapaveroline in parkinso-nian patient undergoing l-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine ther-apy: a possible biosynthetic pathway of morphine from l-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine in humans. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1992;260:974-8.
111. Mendlin A, Mart'in FJ, Jacobs BL. Dopaminergic input is required for increases in serotonin output produced by behavioral activation: an in vivo microdialysis study in rat forebrain. Neuroscience 1999;93:897-905.
112. Honey CR, Stoessl AJ, Tsui JKC, et al. Unilateral palli-dotomy for reduction of parkinsonian pain. J Neurosurg 1999;91:198-201.
113. Pacchetti C, Albani G, Martignoni E, Godi L, et al. "Off" painful dystonia in Parkinson's disease treated with botu-linum toxin. Mov Disord 1995;10:333-6.
114. Mense S. Neurobiological basis for the use of botulinum toxin in pain therapy. J Neurol 2004;251(Suppl 1):I1-7.
115. Fusina S, Conte S, Bertolasi L, et al. Sympathetic skin response asymmetry in early stage idiopathic Parkinson's disease. Clin Neurophysiol 1999;110:358-66.
116. Djaldetti R, Ziv I, Melamed E. The mystery of motor asymmetry in Parkinson's disease. Lancet Neurol 2006;5:796-802.
117. Lepoutre AC, Devos D, Blanchard-Dauphin A, et al. A specific clinical pattern of camptocormia in Parkinson's disease. J Neu-rol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2006;77:1229-34.
118. Lees AJ. The on-off phenomenon. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1989;52(Suppl):29-37.
119. Nutt JG. Continuous dopaminergic stimulation: is it the answer to the motor complications of levodopa? Mov Disord 2007;22:1-9.
120. Nutt JG, Carter JH, Lea ES, Sexton GJ. Evolution of the response to levodopa during the first 4 years of therapy. Ann Neurol 2002;51:686-93.
121. Moro E, Esselink RJA, Benabid AL, Pollak P. Response to levodopa in parkinsonian patients with bilateral subthalamic nucleus stimulation. Brain 2002;125:2408-17.
122. Maricle RA, Valentine RJ, Carter J, Nutt JG. Mood response to levodopa infusion in early Parkinson's disease. Neurology 1998;50:1890-2.
123. Guigoni C, Li Q, Aubert I, et al. Involvement of sensori-motor, limbic, and associative basal ganglia domains in l-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine-induced dyskinesia. J Neurosci 2005;25:2102-7.
124. Schultz W. Dopamine neurons and their role in reward mech-anisms. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1997;7:191-7.
125. Evans AH, Pavese N, Lawrence AD, et al. Compulsive drug use linked to sensitized ventral striatal dopamine transmis-sion. Ann Neurol 2006;59:852-8.
126. Celerier E, Laulin J-P, Corcuff J-B, et al. Progressive enhancement of delayed hyperalgesia induced by repeated heroin administration: a sensitization process. J Neurosci 2001;21:4074-80.
127. Angst MS, Clark JD. Opioid-induced hyperalgesia: a qualita-tive systematic review. Anesthesiology 2006;104:570-87.
128. Pud D, CohenD, Lawental E, Eisenberg E. Opioids and abnor-mal pain perception: new evidence from a study of chronic opioid addicts and healthy subjects. Drug Alcohol Depend 2006;82:218-23.
129. Koob GF, Le Moal M. Hedonic homeostatic dysregulation. Science 1997;278:52-8.
130. Barr AM, Markou A, Phillips AG.A 'crash' course on psychos-timulant withdrawal as a model of depression. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2002;23:475-82.
131. Koob GF, Le Moal M. Plasticity of reward neurocircuitry and the 'dark side' of drug addiction. Nat Neurosci 2005;8:1442-4.
132. Nestler EJ. Is there a common molecular pathway for addic-tion? Nat Neurosci 2005;8:1445-9.
133. Lawrence AD, Evans AH, Lees AJ. Compulsive use of dopamine replacement therapy in Parkinson's disease: reward systems gone awry? Lancet Neurol 2003; 2: 595-604.
134. Funkiewiez A, Ardouin C, Krack P, et al. Acute psychotropic effects of bilateral subthalamic nucleus stimulation and lev-odopa in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2003;18:524-30.
135. Poewe WH, Lees AJ, Stern GM. Dystonia in Parkinson's disease: clinical and pharmacological features. Ann Neurol 1988;23:73-8.
136. Factor SA, Brown DL, Molho ES. Subcutaneous apomorphine injections as a treatment for intractable pain in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2000;15:167-9.
137. Stein WM, Read S. Chronic pain in the setting of Parkinson's disease and depression. J Pain Symp Manage 1997;14:255-8.
138. Diatchenko L, Slade GD, Nackley AG, et al. Genetic basis for individual variations in pain perception and the development of a chronic pain condition. Hum Mol Genet 2005;14:135-43.
139. Rakva°g TT, Klepstad P, Baar C, et al. The Val158Met polymorphism of the human catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) gene may influence morphine requirements in cancer pain patients. Pain 2005;116:73-8.
140. Tegeder I, Costigan M, Griffin RS, et al. GTP cyclohydrolase and tetrahydrobiopterin regulate pain sensitivity and persis-tence. Nat Med 2006;12:1269-77.
141. Gilbert GJ. Biceps pain as the presenting symptom of Parkin-son disease: effective treatment with l-dopa. South Med J 2004;97:776-7.
142. O'Sullivan SS, Williams DR, Gallagher DA, et al. Nonmotor symptoms as presenting complaints in Parkinson's disease: a clinicopathological study. Mov Disord 2008;23:101-6.
143. Dworkin RH, Backonja M, Rowbotham MC, et al. Advances in neuropathic pain: diagnosis, mechanisms, and treatment recommendations. Arch Neurol 2003;60:1524-34.
144. Dworkin RH, O'Connor AB, Backonja M, et al. Pharmacologic management of neuropathic pain: evidence-based recommendations. Pain 2007;132:237-51.
145. Galer BS, Jensen MP. Development and preliminary valida-tion of a pain measure specific to neuropathic pain: The Neu-ropathic Pain Scale. Neurology 1997;48:332-8.
146. Goy ER, Carter JH, Ganzini L. Parkinson disease at the end of life: caregiver perspectives. Neurology 2007;69:611-2.
147. Won A, Lapane K, Gambassi G, et al. Correlates and manage-ment of nonmalignant pain in the nursing home. SAGE Study Group - Systematic Assessment of Geriatric drug use via Epidemiology. J Am Geriatr Soc 1999;47:936-42.
148. Colloca L, Lopiano L, Lanotte M, Benedetti F. Overt versus covert treatment for pain, anxiety, and Parkinson's disease. Lancet Neurol 2004;3:679-84.
149. Shulman LM, Taback RL, Bean J, Weiner WJ. Comorbidity of the nonmotor symptoms of Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2001;16:507-10.
150. Weintraub D, Stern MB. Psychiatric complications in Parkin-son's disease. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2005;13:844-51.
151. Menza M, Marin H, Kaufman K, et al. Citalopram treatment of depression in Parkinson's disease: the impact on anxiety, disability, and cognition. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2004;16:315-9.
152. Juri C, Chana P, Tapia J, et al. Quetiapine for insomnia in Parkinson disease: results from an open-label trial. Clin Neu-ropharmacol 2005;28:185-7.
153. Lim SY, Evans AH, Miyasaki JM. Impulse control and related disorders in Parkinson's disease: review. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2008;1142:85-107.
154. Drake DF, Harkins S, Qutubuddin A. Pain in Parkinson's dis-ease: pathology to treatment, medication to deep brain stimu-lation. NeuroRehabilitation 2005;20:335-41.
155. Rajendran PR, Thompson RE, Reich SG. The use of alterna-tive therapies by patients with Parkinson's disease. Neurology 2001;57:790-4.
156. Vas J, Ortega C, Olmo V, et al. Single-point acupuncture and physiotherapy for the treatment of painful shoulder: a multicentre randomized controlled trial. Rheumatology 2008;47:887-93.
157. Shulman LM, Wen X, Weiner WJ, et al. Acupuncture therapy for the symptoms of Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2002;17:799-802.
158. Cristian A, Katz M, Cutrone E, Walker RH. Evaluation of acupuncture in the treatment of Parkinson's disease: a double-blind pilot study. Mov Disord 2005;20:1185-8.
159. Hillen ME, Sage JI. Nonmotor fluctuations in patients with Parkinson's disease. Neurology 1996;47:1180-3.
160. Frankel JP, Lees AJ, Kempster PA, Stern GM. Subcutaneous apomorphine in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1990;53:96-101.
161. Katzenschlager R, Hughes A, Evans A, et al. Continuous subcutaneous apomorphine therapy improves dyskinesias in Parkinson's disease: a prospective study using single-dose challenges. Mov Disord 2005;20:151-7.
162. Nyholm D, Nilsson Remahl AI, Dizdar N, et al. Duodenal levodopa infusion monotherapy vs oral polypharmacy in advanced Parkinson disease. Neurology 2005;64:216-23.
163. Ho B, Prakash R, Morgan JC, Sethi KD. A case of levodopa-responsive camptocormia associated with advanced Parkinson's disease. Nat Clin Pract Neurol 2007;3:526-30.
164. Kim JS, Park JW, Chung SW, et al. Pisa syndrome as a motor complication of Parkinson's disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2007;13:126-8.
165. Friedman JH, Feinberg SS, Feldman RG. A neuroleptic malignant-like syndrome due to levodopa therapy withdrawal. JAMA 1985;254:2792-5.
166. Guindon J, Walczak JS, Beaulieu P. Recent advances in the pharmacological management of pain. Drugs 2007;67:2121-33.
167. Djaldetti R, Yust-Katz S, Kolianov V, et al. The effect of dulox-etine on primary pain symptoms in Parkinson disease. Clin Neuropharmacol 2007;30:201-5.
168. Juncos JL. Clozapine treatment of parkinsonian pain syn-dromes. Mov Disord 1996;11:603-4.
169. Stoessl AJ, de la Fuente-Fernández R. Willing oneself better on placebo: effective in its own right. Lancet 2004;364:227-8.
170. Garcia-Borreguero D, Larrosa O, de la Llave Y, et al. Treatment of restless legs syndrome with gabapentin: a double-blind, cross-over study. Neurology 2002;59:1573-9.
171. Iranzo A, Comella CL, Santamaria J, Oertel W. Restless legs syndrome in Parkinson's disease and other neurodegener-ative diseases of the central nervous system. Mov Disord 2007;22(Suppl 18):S424-30.
172. Sommer M, Bachmann CG, Liebetanz KM, et al. Pregabalin in restless legs syndrome with and without neuropathic pain. Acta Neurol Scand 2007;115:347-50.
173. Olson WL, Gruenthal M, Mueller ME, Olson WH. Gabapentin for parkinsonism: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over trial. Am J Med 1997;102:60-6.
174. Chaná P, de Marinis A, Barrientos N. Gabapentin and motor fluctuations in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 1997;12: 608.
175. Van Blercom N, Lasa A, Verger K, et al. Effects of gabapentin on the motor response to levodopa: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study in patients with complicated Parkinson disease. Clin Neuropharmacol 2004;27:124-8.
176. Raju PM, Walker RW, Lee MA. Dyskinesia induced by gabapentin in idiopathic Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2007;22:288-9.
177. Lieberman AN, Goldstein M. Reversible parkinsonism related to meperidine. N Engl J Med 1985;312:509.
178. Olivé JM, Masana L, González J. Meperidine and reversible parkinsonism. Mov Disord 1994;9:115-6.
179. Kaye J, Gage H, Kimber A, et al. Excess burden of con-stipation in Parkinson's disease: a pilot study. Mov Disord 2006;21:1270-3.
180. Klos KJ, Bower JH, Josephs KA, et al. Pathological hypersex-uality predominantly linked to adjuvant dopamine agonist therapy in Parkinson's disease and multiple system atrophy. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2005;11:381-6.
181. Evans AH, Lawrence AD, Potts J, et al. Factors influencing susceptibility to compulsive dopaminergic drug use in Parkinson disease. Neurology 2005;65:1570-4.
182. Silveira-Moriyama L, Evans AH, Katzenschlager R, Lees AJ. Punding and dyskinesias. Mov Disord 2006;21:2214-7.
183. Easterford K, Clough P, Kellett M, et al. Reversible parkin-sonism with normal beta-CIT-SPECT in patients exposed to sodium valproate. Neurology 2004;62:1435-7.
184. Ristić AJ, Vojvodić N, Janković S, et al. The frequency of reversible parkinsonism and cognitive decline associated with valproate treatment: a study of 364 patients with different types of epilepsy. Epilepsia 2006;47:2183-5.
185. Svendsen KB, Jensen TS, Bach FW. Does the cannabinoid dronabinol reduce central pain in multiple sclerosis? Ran-domised double blind placebo controlled crossover trial. BMJ 2004;329:253.
186. Semple DM, McIntosh AM, Lawrie SM. Cannabis as a risk factor for psychosis: systematic review. J Psychopharmacol 2005;19:187-94.
187. Adler CH, Stern MB, Vernon G, Hurtig HI. Amantadine in advanced Parkinson's disease: good use of an old drug. J Neu-rol 1997;244:336-7.
188. Hara H, Wakayama Y, Kawase J. Clinical characteristics of painful dystonic foot response in patients with Parkinson's disease. Rinsho Shinkeigaku 1989;29:1101-5.
189. Lees AJ, Shaw KM, Stern GM. Baclofen in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1978;41:707-8.
190. Durif F, Debilly B, Galitzky M, et al. Clozapine improves dyskinesias in Parkinson disease: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Neurology 2004;62:381-8.
191. Cordivari C, Misra VP, Catania S, Lees AJ. Treatment of dystonic clenched fist with botulinum toxin. Mov Disord 2001;16:907-13.
192. Azher SN, Jankovic J. Camptocormia: pathogenesis, classification, and response to therapy. Neurology 2005;65:355-359.
193. Stern MB. Electroconvulsive therapy in untreated Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 1991;6:265.
194. Moellentine C, Rummans T, Ahlskog JE, et al. Effectiveness of ECT in patients with parkinsonism. J Neuropsychiatr Clin Neurosci 1998;10:187-93.
195. Shulman RB. Maintenance ECT in the treatment of PD: therapy improves psychotic symptoms, physical function. Geriatrics 2003;58:43-5.
196. Abdi S, Haruo A, Bloomstone J. Electroconvulsive therapy for neuropathic pain: a case report and literature review. Pain Physician 2004;7:261-3.
197. Wasan AD, Artin K, Clark MR. A case-matching study of the analgesic properties of electroconvulsive therapy. Pain Med 2004;5:50-8.
198. Usui C, Doi N, Nishioka M, et al. Electroconvulsive therapy improves severe pain associated with fibromyalgia. Pain 2006;121:276-80.
199. Wolanin MW, Gulevski V, Schwartzman RJ. Treatment of CRPS with ECT. Pain Physician 2007;10:573-8.
200. Koch LD, Cofield RH, Ahlskog JE. Total shoulder arthroplasty in patients with Parkinson's disease. J Shoulder Elbow Surg 1997;6:24-8.
201. Weber M, Cabanela ME, Sim FH, et al. Total hip replacement in patients with Parkinson's disease. Int Orthopaedics 2002;26:66-8.
202. Shah SN, Hornyak J, Urquhart AG. Flexion contracture after total knee arthroplasty in a patient with Parkinson's disease: successful treatment with botulinum toxin type A. J Arthro-plasty 2005;20:1078-80.
203. Singer C. Papapetropoulos S. Lower limb post-immobilization dystonia in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Sci 2005;239: 111-4.
204. Idjadi JA, Aharonoff GB, Su H, et al. Hip fracture outcomes in patients with Parkinson's disease. Am J Orthop 2005;34: 341-6.
205. Pahwa R, Factor SA, Lyons KE, et al. Practice parameter: treatment of Parkinson disease with motor fluctuations and dyski-nesia (an evidence-based review): Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 2006;66:983-95.
206. Krack P, Batir A, Van Blercom N, et al. Five-year follow-up of bilateral stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus in advanced Parkinson's disease. N Engl J Med 2003;349:1925-34.
207. Rodriguez-Oroz MC, Obeso JA, Lang AE, et al. Bilateral deep brain stimulation in Parkinson's disease: a multicentre study with 4 years follow-up. Brain 2005;128:2240-9.
208. Schupbach WMM, Chastan N, Welter ML, et al. Stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus in Parkinson's disease: a 5 year follow up. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2005;76:1640-4.
209. Volkmann J, Allert N, Voges J, et al. Long-term results of bilateral pallidal stimulation in Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 2004;55:871-5.
210. Krack P, Pollak P, Limousin P, et al. From off-period dystonia to peak-dose chorea: the clinical spectrum of varying subtha-lamic nucleus activity. Brain 1999;122:1133-46.
211. Loher TJ, Burgunder JM, Weber S, et al. Effect of chronic palli-dal deep brain stimulation on off period dystonia and sensory symptoms in advanced Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neuro-surg Psychiatry 2002;73:395-9.
212. Witjas T, Kaphan E, Régis J, et al. Effects of chronic subthala-mic stimulation on nonmotor fluctuations in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2007;22:1729-34.
213. Valldeoriola F, Pilleri M, Tolosa E, et al. Bilateral subthalamic stimulation monotherapy in advanced Parkinson's disease: long-term follow-up of patients. Mov Disord 2002;17:125-32.
214. Russmann H, Ghika J, Combrement P, et al. L-Dopa-induced dyskinesia improvement after STN-DBS depends upon medi-cation reduction. Neurology 2004;63:153-5.
215. Tseng HM, Su PC, Liu HM, et al. Bilateral subthalamotomy for advanced Parkinson disease. Surg Neurol 2007;68(Suppl 1):43-51.
216. Vitek JL, Bakay RAE, Freeman A, et al. Randomized trial of pallidotomy versus medical therapy for Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 2003;53:558-69.
217. de Bie RMA, Schuurman PR, de Haan PS, et al. Unilateral pallidotomy in advanced Parkinson's disease: a retrospective study of 26 patients. Mov Disord 1999;14:951-7.
218. Baron MS, Vitek JL, Bakay RAE, et al. Treatment of advanced Parkinson's disease by posterior GPi pallidotomy: 1-year results of a pilot study. Ann Neurol 1996;40:355-66.
219. Garcia-Larrea L, Peyron R. Motor cortex stimulation for neu-ropathic pain: from phenomenology to mechanisms. Neuroim-age 2007;37(Suppl 1):S71-9.
220. Priori A, Lefaucheur JP. Chronic epidural motor cortical stim-ulation for movement disorders. Lancet Neurol 2007;6:279-86.
221. Pagni CA, Zeme S, Zenga F, Maina R. Extradural motor cor-tex stimulation in advanced Parkinson's disease: the Turin experience: technical case report. Operative Neurosurg 2005: 57.
222. Strafella AP, Lozano AM, Lang AE, et al. Subdural motor cortex stimulation in Parkinson's disease does not modify movement-related rCBF pattern. Mov Disord 2007;22: 2113-6.
223. Cilia R, Landi A, Vergani F, et al. Extradural motor cortex stimulation in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2007:22: 111-4.
224. Martinez-Martin P, Schapira AHV, Stocchi F, et al. Prevalence of nonmotor symptoms in Parkinson's disease in an interna-tional setting: study using Nonmotor Symptoms Question-naire in 545 patients. Mov Disord 2007:22:1623-9.
225. Iwamoto ET. Characterization of the antinociception induced by nicotine in the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus and the nucleus raphe magnus. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1991;257:120-33.
226. Mamede Rosa ML, Oliveira MA, Valente RB, et al. Phar-macological and neuroanatomical evidence for the involve-ment of the anterior pretectal nucleus in the antinociception induced by stimulation of the dorsal raphe nucleus in rats. Pain 1998;74:171-9.
227. Goto S, Hirano A. Catecholaminergic neurons in the parabrachial nucleus of normal individuals and patients with idiopathic Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 1991;30:192-6.
228. Braak H, Rüb U, Sandmann-Keil D, et al. Parkinson's dis-ease: affection of brain stem nuclei controlling premotor and motor neurons of the somatomotor system. Acta Neuropathol 2000;99:489-95.