Scrub Typhus

Tropical Infectious Diseases

Volumn , Issue , 2011, Pages 334-338

  Kim, Ik Sang ^a   Walker, David H ^b  

^a Seoul National University College of Medicine   (South Korea)

^b University of Texas Medical Branch School of Medicine   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84885100931     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-7020-3935-5.00051-3     Document Type: Chapter

References (120)

1. Fan MY, Walker DH, Yu SR, et al. Epidemiology and ecology of rickettsial diseases in the People's Republic of China. Rev Infect Dis 1987, 9(4):823.
2. Nagayo M, Tamiya T, Mitamura T, et al. On the virus of Tsutsugamushi disease and its demonstration by a new method. Trans Japan Pathol Soc 1930, 20:556.
3. Rosenberg R Drug-resistant scrub typhus: paradigm and paradox. Parasitol Today 1997, 13(4):131.
4. Watt G, Parola P Scrub typhus and tropical rickettsioses. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2003, 16(5):429.
5. Oaks SC, Ridgway RL, Shirai A, et al. Scrub Typhus: Bulletin No 21 1983, Institute for Medical Research Malaysia. United States Army Medical Research Unit, Malaysia.
6. Seong SY, Choi MS, Kim IS Orientia tsutsugamushi infection: overview and immune responses. Microbes Infect 2001, 3(1):11.
7. Cao M, Guo H, Tang T, et al. Spring scrub typhus, People's Republic of China. Emerg Infect Dis 2006, 12(9):1463.
8. Spicer PE, Taufa T, Benjamin AL Scrub typhus (Orientia tsutsugamushi), spotted fever (Rickettsia australis) and dengue fever as possible causes of mysterious deaths in the Strickland Gorge area of Southern Highlands and West Sepik Provinces of Papua New Guinea. PNG Med J 2007, 50(3-4):172.
9. Ralph A, Raines M, Whelan P, et al. Scrub typhus in the Northern Territory: exceeding the boundaries of Litchfield National Park. Commun Dis Intelligence 2004, 28(2):267.
10. Burgdorfer W Ecological and epidemiological considerations of Rocky Mountain spotted fever and scrub typhus. Biology of Rickettsial Diseases 1988, 33. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. D.H. Walker (Ed.).
11. Jiang J, Marienau KJ, May LA, et al. Laboratory diagnosis of two scrub typhus outbreaks at Camp Fuji, Japan in 2000 and 2001 by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, rapid flow assay, and Western blot assay using outer membrane 56-kD recombinant proteins. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2003, 69(1):60.
12. Mahajan SK, Rolain JM, Kashyap R, et al. Scrub typhus in Himalayas. Emerg Infect Dis 2006, 12(10):1590.
13. Mathai E, Rolain JM, Verghese GM, et al. Outbreak of scrub typhus in southern India during the cooler months. Ann NY Acad Sci 2003, 990:359.
14. Lewis MD, Yousuf AA, Lerdthusnee K, et al. Scrub typhus reemergence in the Maldives. Emerg Infect Dis 2003, 9(12):1638.
15. Premaratna R, Loftis AD, Chandrasena TG, et al. Rickettsial infections and their clinical presentations in the western province of Sri Lanka: a hospital-based study. Int J Infect Dis 2008, 12(2):198.
16. Chang WH Current status of tsutsugamushi disease in Korea. J Korean Med Sci 1995, 110(4):227.
17. Liu YX, Feng D, Suo JJ, et al. Clinical characteristics of the autumn-winter type scrub typhus cases in south of Shandong province, northern China. BMC Infect Dis 2009, 9:82.
18. Traub R, Wisseman CL The ecology of chigger-borne rickettsiosis (scrub typhus). J Med Entomol 1974, 11(3):237.
19. Upham RW, Hubert AA, Phang OW, et al. Distribution of Leptotrombidium (Leptotrombidium) arenicola (Acarina: Trombiculidae) on the ground in West Malaysia. J Med Entomol 1971, 8(4):401.
20. Roberts LW, Gan E, Rapmund G, et al. Identification of Rickettsia tsutsugamushi in the life stages of Leptotrombidium pallidum with isolation and immunofluorescence techniques. Ann NY Acad Sci 1975, 266:73.
21. Hase T, Roberts LW, Hildebrandt PK, et al. Stylostome formation by Leptotrombidium mites (Acari: Trombiculidae). J Parasitol 1978, 64(4):712.
22. Kawamori F, Akiyama M, Sugieda M, et al. Epidemiology of tsutsugamushi disease in relation to the serotypes of Rickettsia tsutsugamushi isolated from patients, field mice, and unfed chiggers on the eastern slope of Mount Fuji, Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan. J Clin Microbiol 1992, 30(11):2842.
23. Kawamura A, Tanaka H, Tamura A Transmission dynamics of Rickettsia tsutsugamushi. Tsutsugamushi Disease 1995, 247. University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo.
24. Walker JS, Chan CT, Manikumaran C, et al. Attempts to infect and demonstrate transovarial transmission of R. tsutsugamushi in three species of Leptotrombidium mites. Ann NY Acad Sci 1975, 266:80.
25. Audy JR, Harrison JL A review of investigations on mite typhus in Burma and Malaya, 1945-1950. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1951, 44(4):371.
26. Takahashi M, Murata M, Machida K, et al. Aggregated distribution of infective spots composed of Leptotrombidium pallidum, highly prevalent with Rickettsia tsutsugamushi, demonstrated by sentinel voles, Microtus montebelli, on the ground. Jpn J Exp Med 1990, 60(6):325.
27. Roberts LW, Rapmund G, Cadigan FC Sex ratios in Rickettsia tsutsugamushi-infected and noninfected colonies of Leptotrombidium (Acari: Trombiculidae). J Med Entomol 1977, 14(1):89.
28. Brown GW, Robinson DM, Huxsoll DL, et al. Scrub typhus: a common cause of illness in indigenous populations. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1976, 70(5-6):444.
29. Brown GW, Robinson DM, Huxsoll DL Serological evidence for a high incidence of transmission of Rickettsia tsutsugamushi in two Orang Asli settlements in Peninsular Malaysia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1978, 27(1 Pt 1):121.
30. Corwin A, Soderquist R, Suwanabun N, et al. Scrub typhus and military operations in Indochina. Clin Infect Dis 1999, 29(4):940.
31. Oh M, Kim N, Huh M, et al. Scrub typhus pneumonitis acquired through the respiratory tract in a laboratory worker. Infection 2001, 29(1):54.
32. Tamura A, Ohashi N, Urakami H, et al. Classification of Rickettsia tsutsugamushi in a new genus, Orientia gen. nov., as Orientia tsutsugamushi comb. nov. Int J Syst Bacteriol 1995, 45(3):589.
33. Tamura A, Ohashi N, Urakami H, et al. Analysis of polypeptide composition and antigenic components of Rickettsia tsutsugamushi by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and immunoblotting. Infect Immun 1985, 48(3):671.
34. Ohashi N, Nashimoto H, Ikeda H, et al. Diversity of immunodominant 56-kDa type-specific antigen (TSA) of Rickettsia tsutsugamushi. Sequence and comparative analyses of the genes encoding TSA homologues from four antigenic variants. J Biol Chem 1992, 267(18):12728.
35. Chen HW, Zhang Z, Huber E, et al. Identification of cross-reactive epitopes on the conserved 47-kilodalton antigen of Orientia tsutsugamushi and human serine protease. Infect Immun 2009, 77(6):2311.
36. Chattopadhyay S, Richards AL Scrub typhus vaccines: past history and recent developments. Hum Vaccin 2007, 3(3):73.
37. Elisberg BL, Campbell JM, Bozeman FM Antigenic diversity of Rickettsia tsutsugamushi: epidemiologic and ecologic significance. J Hyg Epidemiol Microbiol Immunol 1968, 12(1):18.
38. Tay ST, Rohani YM, Ho TM, et al. Sequence analysis of the hypervariable regions of the 56 kDa immunodominant protein genes of Orientia tsutsugamushi strains in Malaysia. Microbiol Immunol 2005, 49(1):67.
39. Enatsu T, Urakami H, Tamura A Phylogenetic analysis of Orientia tsutsugamushi strains based on the sequence homologies of 56-kDa type-specific antigen genes. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1999, 180(2):163.
40. Kelly DJ, Fuerst PA, Ching WM, et al. Scrub typhus: the geographic distribution of phenotypic and genotypic variants of Orientia tsutsugamushi. Clin Infect Dis 2009, 48(suppl 3):S203.
41. Cho NH, Kim HR, Lee JH, et al. The Orientia tsutsugamushi genome reveals massive proliferation of conjugative type IV secretion system and host-cell interaction genes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2007, 104(19):7981.
42. Nakayama K, Yamashita A, Kurokawa K, et al. The whole-genome sequencing of the obligate intracellular bacterium Orientia tsutsugamushi revealed massive gene amplification during reductive genome evolution. DNA Res 2008, 15(4):185.
43. Min CK, Yang JS, Kim S, et al. Genome-based construction of the metabolic pathways of Orientia tsutsugamushi and comparative analysis within the Rickettsiales order. Comp Funct Genomics 2008, 623145.
44. Lee N, Ip M, Wong B, et al. Risk factors associated with life-threatening rickettsial infections. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2008, 78(6):973.
45. Shiga K, Ogawa M, Ono T, et al. Analysis of clinical severity of tsutsugamushi disease according to the serotype of pathogenic rickettsia. Kansenshogaku Zasshi 1997, 71(4):299.
46. Smadel JE, Ley HL, Diercks FH, et al. Immunization against scrub typhus. I. Combined living vaccine and chemoprophylaxis in volunteers. Am J Hyg 1951, 53(3):317.
47. Kim IH, Lee HB, Hwang JH, et al. Scrub typhus in patients with liver cirrhosis: a preliminary study. Clin Microbiol Infect 2010, 16(5):419.
48. Wang CC, Liu SF, Liu JW, et al. Acute respiratory distress syndrome in scrub typhus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2007, 76(6):1148.
49. Silpapojakul K, Ukkachoke C, Krisanapan S Rickettsial meningitis and encephalitis. Arch Intern Med 1991, 151(9):1753.
50. Tsay RW, Chang FY Serious complications in scrub typhus. J Microbiol Immunol Infect 1998, 31(4):240.
51. Takahashi M, Murata M, Misumi H, et al. Change of the eschar observed in a case of tsutsugamushi disease. Ann Rep Ohara Hosp 1991, 34:7.
52. Kim DM, Won KJ, Park CY, et al. Distribution of eschars on the body of scrub typhus patients: a prospective study. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2007, 76(5):806.
53. Pau WS, Tan KK Importance of a thorough examination. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2008, 27(6):569.
54. Tsai CC, Chiang DH, Duh RW Scrub typhus mimicking deep neck infection. Intern Med 2008, 47(22):1997.
55. Silpapojakul K, Varachit B Paediatric scrub typhus in Thailand: a study of 73 confirmed cases. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2004, 98(6):354.
56. Ogawa M, Hagiwara T, Kishimoto T, et al. Scrub typhus in Japan: epidemiology and clinical features of cases reported in 1998. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2002, 67(2):162.
57. Jim WT, Chiu NC, Chan WT, et al. Clinical manifestations, laboratory findings and complications of pediatric scrub typhus in eastern Taiwan. Pediatr Neonatol 2009, 50(3):96.
58. Scheie HG Ocular changes associated with scrub typhus: a study of 451 patients. Arch Ophthal 1948, 40(3):245.
59. Scheie HG Ocular changes in scrub typhus. A study of 451 patients. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc 1947, 45:637.
60. Song SW, Kim KT, Ku YM, et al. Clinical role of interstitial pneumonia in patients with scrub typhus: a possible marker of disease severity. J Korean Med Sci 2004, 19(5):668.
61. Hsu YH, Chen HI Pulmonary pathology in patients associated with scrub typhus. Pathology 2008, 40(3):268.
62. Kato T, Watanabe K, Katori M, et al. Conjunctival injection, episcleral vessel dilation, and subconjunctival hemorrhage in patients with new tsutsugamushi disease. Jpn J Ophthalmol 1997, 41(3):196.
63. Kim SJ, Chung IK, Chung IS, et al. The clinical significance of upper gastrointestinal endoscopy in gastrointestinal vasculitis related to scrub typhus. Endoscopy 2000, 32(12):950.
64. Aung T, Supanaranond W, Phumiratanaprapin W, et al. Gastrointestinal manifestations of septic patients with scrub typhus in Maharat Nakhon Ratchasima Hospital. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 2004, 35(4):845.
65. Ben RJ, Feng NH, Ku CS Meningoencephalitis, myocarditis and disseminated intravascular coagulation in a patient with scrub typhus. J Microbiol Immunol Infect 1999, 32(1):57.
66. Pai H, Sohn S, Seong Y, et al. Central nervous system involvement in patients with scrub typhus. Clin Infect Dis 1997, 24(3):436.
67. Yen TH, Chang CT, Lin JL, et al. Scrub typhus: a frequently overlooked cause of acute renal failure. Ren Fail 2003, 25(3):397.
68. Aronoff DM, Watt G Prevalence of relative bradycardia in Orientia tsutsugamushi infection. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2003, 68(4):477.
69. Sittiwangkul R, Pongprot Y, Silviliarat S, et al. Acute fulminant myocarditis in scrub typhus. Ann Trop Paediatr 2008, 28(2):149.
70. Lee S, Kang KP, Kim W, et al. A case of acute renal failure, rhabdomyolysis and disseminated intravascular coagulation associated with scrub typhus. Clin Nephrol 2003, 60(1):59.
71. Iwasaki H, Ueda T, Uchida M, et al. Atypical lymphocytes with a multilobated nucleus from a patient with tsutsugamushi disease (scrub typhus) in Japan. Am J Hematol 1991, 36(2):150.
72. Mathai E, Rolain JM, Verghese L, et al. Case reports: scrub typhus during pregnancy in India. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2003, 97(5):570.
73. Kim YS, Lee HJ, Chang M, et al. Scrub typhus during pregnancy and its treatment: a case series and review of the literature. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2006, 75(5):955.
74. Sonthayanon P, Chierakul W, Wuthiekanun V, et al. Association of high Orientia tsutsugamushi DNA loads with disease of greater severity in adults with scrub typhus. J Clin Microbiol 2009, 47(2):430.
75. Ihn KS, Han SH, Kim HR, et al. Cellular invasion of Orientia tsutsugamushi requires initial interaction with cell surface heparan sulfate. Microb Pathog 2000, 28(4):227.
76. Kim HR, Choi MS, Kim IS Role of syndecan-4 in the cellular invasion of Orientia tsutsugamushi. Microb Pathog 2004, 36(4):219.
77. Lee JH, Cho NH, Kim SY, et al. Fibronectin facilitates the invasion of Orientia tsutsugamushi into host cells through interaction with a 56-kDa type-specific antigen. J Infect Dis 2008, 198(2):250.
78. Chu H, Lee JH, Han SH, et al. Exploitation of the endocytic pathway by Orientia tsutsugamushi in nonprofessional phagocytes. Infect Immun 2006, 74(7):4246.
79. Kim SW, Ihn KS, Han SH, et al. Microtubule- and dynein-mediated movement of Orientia tsutsugamushi to the microtubule organizing center. Infect Immun 2001, 69(1):494.
80. Kadosaka T, Kimura E Electron microscopic observations of Orientia tsutsugamushi in salivary gland cells of naturally infected Leptotrombidium pallidum larvae during feeding. Microbiol Immunol 2003, 47(10):727.
81. Cho NH, Seong SY, Choi MS, et al. Expression of chemokine genes in human dermal microvascular endothelial cell lines infected with Orientia tsutsugamushi. Infect Immun 2001, 69(3):1265.
82. Paris DH, Jenjaroen K, Blacksell SD, et al. Differential patterns of endothelial and leucocyte activation in 'typhus-like' illnesses in Laos and Thailand. Clin Exp Immunol 2008, 153(1):63.
83. Moron CG, Popov VL, Feng HM, et al. Identification of the target cells of Orientia tsutsugamushi in human cases of scrub typhus. Mod Pathol 2001, 14(8):752.
84. Jeong YJ, Kim S, Wook YD, et al. Scrub typhus: clinical, pathologic, and imaging findings. Radiographics 2007, 27(1):161.
85. Ng FK, Oaks SC, Lee M, et al. A scanning and transmission electron microscopic examination of Rickettsia tsutsugamushi-infected human endothelial, MRC-5, and L-929 cells. Jpn J Med Sci Biol 1985, 38(3):125.
86. Kanno A, Yamada M, Murakami K, et al. Liver involvement in tsutsugamushi disease. Tohoku J Exp Med 1996, 179(3):213.
87. Chung DR, Lee YS, Lee SS Kinetics of inflammatory cytokines in patients with scrub typhus receiving doxycycline treatment. J Infect 2008, 56(1):44.
88. Iwasaki H, Mizoguchi J, Takada N, et al. Correlation between the concentrations of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and the severity of disease in patients infected with Orientia tsutsugamushi. Int J Infect Dis 2010, 14(4):e328.
89. Kim MK, Seong SY, Seoh JY, et al. Orientia tsutsugamushi inhibits apoptosis of macrophages by retarding intracellular calcium release. Infect Immun 2002, 70(8):4692.
90. Jerrells TR, Osterman JV Host defenses in experimental scrub typhus: delayed-type hypersensitivity responses of inbred mice. Infect Immun 1982, 35(1):117.
91. Kobayashi Y, Kawamura S, Oyama T Immunological studies of experimental tsutsugamushi disease in congenitally athymic (nude) mice. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1985, 34(3):568.
92. Palmer BA, Hetrick FM, Jerrells TR Gamma interferon production in response to homologous and heterologous strain antigens in mice chronically infected with Rickettsia tsutsugamushi. Infect Immun 1984, 46(1):237.
93. Nacy CA, Osterman JV Host defenses in experimental scrub typhus: role of normal and activated macrophages. Infect Immun 1979, 26(2):744.
94. Robinson DM, Huxsoll DL Protection against scrub typhus infection engendered by the passive transfer of immune sera. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 1975, 6(4):477.
95. Lee JS, Park MY, Kim YJ, et al. Histopathological features in both the eschar and erythematous lesions of tsutsugamushi disease: identification of CD30+ cell infiltration in tsutsugamushi disease. Am J Dermatopathol 2009, 31(6):551.
96. Watt G, Jongsakul K, Chouriyagune C, et al. Differentiating dengue virus infection from scrub typhus in Thai adults with fever. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2003, 68(5):536.
97. Anonymous. Scrub typhus pneumonia. Lancet 1988, 2(8619):1062.
98. Liu YX, Feng D, Zhang Q, et al. Key differentiating features between scrub typhus and hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in northern China. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2007, 76(5):801.
99. Varghese GM, Abraham OC, Mathai D, et al. Scrub typhus among hospitalised patients with febrile illness in South India: magnitude and clinical predictors. J Infect 2006, 52(1):56.
100. Lee YS, Wang PH, Tseng SJ, et al. Epidemiology of scrub typhus in eastern Taiwan, 2000-2004. Jpn J Infect Dis 2006, 59(4):235.
101. Lee CH, Liu JW Coinfection with leptospirosis and scrub typhus in Taiwanese patients. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2007, 77(3):525.
102. Nachega JB, Bottieau E, Zech F, et al. Travel-acquired scrub typhus: emphasis on the differential diagnosis, treatment, and prevention strategies. J Travel Med 2007, 14(5):352.
103. Bozeman FM, Elisberg BL Serological diagnosis of scrub typhus by indirect immunofluorescence. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1963, 112:568.
104. Blacksell SD, Bryant NJ, Paris DH, et al. Scrub typhus serologic testing with the indirect immunofluorescence method as a diagnostic gold standard: a lack of consensus leads to a lot of confusion. Clin Infect Dis 2007, 44(3):391.
105. Kim IS, Seong SY, Woo SG, et al. High-level expression of a 56-kilodalton protein gene (bor56) of Rickettsia tsutsugamushi Boryong and its application to enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. J Clin Microbiol 1993, 31(3):598.
106. Ching WM, Rowland D, Zhang Z, et al. Early diagnosis of scrub typhus with a rapid flow assay using recombinant major outer membrane protein antigen (r56) of Orientia tsutsugamushi. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 2001, 8(2):409.
107. Pradutkanchana J, Silpapojakul K, Paxton H, et al. Comparative evaluation of four serodiagnostic tests for scrub typhus in Thailand. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1997, 91(4):425.
108. Kim IS, Seong SY, Woo SG, et al. Rapid diagnosis of scrub typhus by a passive hemagglutination assay using recombinant 56-kilodalton polypeptides. J Clin Microbiol 1993, 31(8):2057.
109. Kawamumra A, Tanaka H, Tamura A Diagnosis. Tsutsugamushi Disease 1995, 278. University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo.
110. Paris DH, Blacksell SD, Newton PN, et al. Simple, rapid and sensitive detection of Orientia tsutsugamushi by loop-isothermal DNA amplification. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2008, 102(12):1239.
111. Manosroi J, Chutipongvivate S, Auwanit W, et al. Determination and geographic distribution of Orientia tsutsugamushi serotypes in Thailand by nested polymerase chain reaction. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2006, 55(3):185.
112. Paris DH, Aukkanit N, Jenjaroen K, et al. A highly sensitive quantitative real-time PCR assay based on the groEL gene of contemporary Thai strains of Orientia tsutsugamushi. Clin Microbiol Infect 2009, 15(5):488.
113. Kim DM, Byun JN Effects of antibiotic treatment on the results of nested PCRs for scrub typhus. J Clin Microbiol 2008, 46(10):3465.
114. Kim YS, Yun HJ, Shim SK, et al. A comparative trial of a single dose of azithromycin versus doxycycline for the treatment of mild scrub typhus. Clin Infect Dis 2004, 39(9):1329.
115. Phimda K, Hoontrakul S, Suttinont C, et al. Doxycycline versus azithromycin for treatment of leptospirosis and scrub typhus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007, 51(9):3259.
116. Panpanich R, Garner P Antibiotics for treating scrub typhus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002, 3. CD002150.
117. Watt G, Chouriyagune C, Ruangweerayud R, et al. Scrub typhus infections poorly responsive to antibiotics in northern Thailand. Lancet 1996, 348(9020):86.
118. Phupong V, Srettakraikul K Scrub typhus during pregnancy: a case report and review of the literature. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 2004, 35(2):358.
119. Olson JG, Bourgeois AL, Fang RC, et al. Prevention of scrub typhus. Prophylactic administration of doxycycline in a randomized double blind trial. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1980, 29(5):989.
120. Sharma PK, Ramakrishnan R, Hutin YJ, et al. Scrub typhus in Darjeeling, India: opportunities for simple, practical prevention measures. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2009, 103(11):1153.