Atypical modulation of distant functional connectivity by cognitive state in children with Autism Spectrum Disorders

Frontiers in Human Neuroscience

Volumn , Issue AUG, 2013, Pages

  You, Xiaozhen ^a   Norr, Megan ^a   Murphy, Eric ^a   Kuschner, Emily S ^b   Bal, Elgiz ^b   Gaillard, William D ^b   Kenworthy, Lauren ^b   Vaidya, Chandan J ^a,b  

^a GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b CHILDREN S RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (United States)

Author keywords

ASD; FMRI; Intrinsic; Spontaneous; Task

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ANGULAR GYRUS; ANTERIOR CINGULATE; ARTICLE; AUTISM; BRAIN MAPPING; CHILD; CLINICAL ARTICLE; COGNITION; CONNECTOME; CONTROLLED STUDY; DISTANT FUNCTIONAL CONNECTIVITY; FEMALE; FRONTAL LOBE; FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; FUNCTIONAL NEUROIMAGING; HUMAN; HYPERACTIVITY; IMAGE ANALYSIS; IMPULSIVENESS; MALE; MENTAL TASK; MIDDLE TEMPORAL GYRUS; NERVE CELL NETWORK; NEUROMODULATION; PARIETAL LOBE; PREMOTOR CORTEX; RESTING STATE NETWORK; SCHOOL CHILD; SUPPLEMENTARY MOTOR AREA; TASK PERFORMANCE;

EID: 84884686282     PISSN: 16625161     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00482     Document Type: Article

References (91)

1. Achard, S., and Bullmore, E. (2007). Efficiency and cost of economical brain functional networks. PLoS Comput. Biol. 3:e17. doi: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.0030017
2. American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.).
3. Arfanakis, K., Cordes, D., Haughton, V. M., Moritz, C. H., Quigley, M. A., and Meyerand, M. E. (2000). Combining independent component analysis and correlation analysis to probe interregional connectivity in fMRI task activation datasets. Magn. Reson. Imaging 18, 921-930. doi: 10.1016/S0730-725X(00)00190-9
4. Assaf, M., Jagannathan, K., Calhoun, V. D., Miller, L., Stevens, M. C., Sahl, R., et al. (2010). Abnormal functional connectivity of default mode sub-networks in autism spectrum disorder patients. Neuroimage 53, 247-256. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.05.067
5. Barttfeld, P., Wicker, B., Cukier, S., Navarta, S., Lew, S., and Sigman, M. (2011). A big-world network in ASD: dynamical connectivity analysis reflects a deficit in long-range connections and an excess of short-range connections. Neuropsychologia 49, 254-263. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.11.024
6. Bassett, D. S., Wymbs, N. F., Porter, M. A., Mucha, P. J., Carlson, J. M., and Grafton, S. T. (2011). Dynamic reconfiguration of human brain networks during learning. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 108, 7641-7646. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1018985108
7. Bejjani, A., O'Neill, J., Kim, J. A., Frew, A. J., Yee, V. W., Ly, R., et al. (2012). Elevated glutamatergic compounds in pregenual anterior cingulate in pediatric autism spectrum disorder demonstrated by 1H MRS and 1H MRSI. PLoS ONE 7:e38786. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0038786
8. Birn, R. M., Diamond, J. B., Smith, M. A., and Bandettini, P. A. (2006). Separating respiratory-variation-related fluctuations from neuronal-activity-related fluctuations in fMRI. Neuroimage 31, 1536-1548. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.02.048
9. Boersma, M., Kemner, C., de Reus, M. A., Collin, G., Snijders, T. M., Hofman, D., et al. (2013). Disrupted functional brain networks in autistic toddlers. Brain Connect. 3, 41-49. doi: 10.1089/brain.2012.0127
10. Brett, M., Anton, J., Valabregue, R., and Pioline, J. (2002). "Region of interest analysis using an SPM toolbox, " in Presented at the 8th International Conferance on Functional Mapping of the Human Brain (Sendai) [abstract].
11. Buckner, R. L., Sepulcre, J., Talukdar, T., Krienen, F. M., Liu, H., Hedden, T., et al. (2009). cortical hubs revealed by intrinsic functional connectivity: mapping, assessment of stability, and relation to Alzheimer's Disease. J. Neurosci. 29, 1860-1873. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5062-08.2009
12. Bullmore, E., and Sporns, O. (2009). Complex brain networks: graph theoretical analysis of structural and functional systems. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 10, 186-198. doi: 10.1038/nrn2575
13. Bunge, S. A., Dudukovic, N. M., Thomason, M. E., Vaidya, C. J., and Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2002). Immature frontal lobe contributions to cognitive control in children: evidence from fMRI. Neuron 33, 301-311. doi: 10.1016/S0896-6273(01)00583-9
14. Burgund, E. D., Kang, H. C., Kelly, J. E., Buckner, R. L., Snyder, A. Z., Petersen, S. E., et al. (2002). The feasibility of a common stereotactic space for children and adults in fMRI studies of development. Neuroimage 17, 184-200. doi: 10.1006/nimg.2002.1174
15. Cherkassky, V. L., Kana, R. K., Keller, T. A., and Just, M. A. (2006). Functional connectivity in a baseline resting-state network in autism. Neuroreport 17, 1687-1690. doi: 10.1097/01.wnr.0000239956.45448.4c
16. Di Martino, A., Kelly, C., Grzadzinski, R., Zuo, X.-N., Mennes, M., Mairena, M. A., et al. (2011). Aberrant striatal functional connectivity in children with autism. Biol. Psychiatry 69, 847-856. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.10.029
17. DuPaul, G. J., Power, T. J., Anastopoulos, A. D., and Reid, R. (1998). ADHD Rating Scale-IV: Checklists, Norms, and Clinical Interpretation. (New York, NY: Guilford Press).
18. Durston, S., Tottenham, N. T., Thomas, K. M., Davidson, M. C., Eigsti, I.-M., Yang, Y., et al. (2003). Differential patterns of striatal activation in young children with and without ADHD. Biol. Psychiatry 53, 871-878. doi: 10.1016/S0006-3223(02)01904-2
19. Felleman, D. J., and Van Essen, D. C. (1991). Distributed hierarchical processing in the primate cerebral cortex. Cereb. Cortex 1, 1-47. doi: 10.1093/cercor/1.1.1
20. Fox, M. D., Snyder, A. Z., Zacks, J. M., and Raichle, M. E. (2006). Coherent spontaneous activity accounts for trial-to-trial variability in human evoked brain responses. Nat. Neurosci. 9, 23-25. doi: 10.1038/nn1616
21. Fransson, P. (2006). How default is the default mode of brain function? Further evidence from intrinsic BOLD signal fluctuations. Neuropsychologia 44, 2836-2845. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.06.017
22. Freire, L., Roche, A., and Mangin, J.-F. (2002). What is the best similarity measure for motion correction in fMRI time series. IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging 21, 470-484. doi: 10.1109/TMI.2002.1009383
23. Fukunaga, M., Horovitz, S. G., van Gelderen, P., de Zwart, J. A., Jansma, J. M., Ikonomidou, V. N., et al. (2006). Large-amplitude, spatially correlated fluctuations in BOLD fMRI signals during extended rest and early sleep stages. Magn. Reson. Imaging 24, 979-992. doi: 10.1016/j.mri.2006.04.018
24. Gilotty, L., Kenworthy, L., Sirian, L., Black, D. O., and Wagner, A. E. (2002). Adaptive skills and executive function in autism spectrum disorders. Child Neuropsychol. 8, 241-248. doi: 10.1076/chin.8.4.241.13504
25. Gordon, E. M., Breeden, A. L., Bean, S. E., and Vaidya, C. J. (2012a). Working memory-related changes in functional connectivity persist beyond task disengagement. Hum. Brain Mapp. doi: 10.1002/hbm.22230. [Epub ahead of print].
26. Gordon, E. M., Stollstorff, M., Devaney, J. M., Bean, S., and Vaidya, C. J. (2012b). Effect of dopamine transporter genotype on intrinsic functional connectivity depends on cognitive state. Cereb. Cortex 22, 2182-2196. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhr305
27. Gordon, E. M., Stollstorff, M., and Vaidya, C. J. (2012c). Using spatial multiple regression to identify intrinsic connectivity networks involved in working memory performance. Hum. Brain Mapp. 33, 1536-1552. doi: 10.1002/hbm.21306
28. Gotts, S. J., Simmons, W. K., Milbury, L. A., Wallace, G. L., Cox, R. W., and Martin, A. (2012). Fractionation of social brain circuits in autism spectrum disorders. Brain 135, 2711-2725. doi: 10.1093/brain/aws160
29. Greicius, M. D., Kiviniemi, V., Tervonen, O., Vainionpää, V., Alahuhta, S., Reiss, A. L., et al. (2008). Persistent default-mode network connectivity during light sedation. Hum. Brain Mapp. 29, 839-847. doi: 10.1002/hbm.20537
30. Hampson, M., Olson, I. R., Leung, H.-C., Skudlarski, P., and Gore, J. C. (2004). Changes in functional connectivity of human MT/V5 with visual motion input. Neuroreport 15, 1315-1319. doi: 10.1097/01.wnr.0000129997.95055.15
31. Heine, L., Soddu, A., Gómez, F., Vanhaudenhuyse, A., Tshibanda, L., Thonnard, M., et al. (2012). Resting state networks and consciousness: alterations of multiple resting state network connectivity in physiological, pharmacological, and pathological consciousness States. Front. Psychol. 3:295. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00295
32. Hill, E. L. (2004). Executive dysfunction in autism. Trends Cogn. Sci. 8, 26-32. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2003.11.003
33. Hume, K., Loftin, R., and Lantz, J. (2009). Increasing independence in autism spectrum disorders: a review of three focused interventions. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 39, 1329-1338. doi: 10.1007/s10803-009-0751-2
34. Jiang, T., He, Y., Zang, Y., and Weng, X. (2004). Modulation of functional connectivity during the resting state and the motor task. Hum. Brain Mapp. 22, 63-71. doi: 10.1002/hbm.20012
35. Jones, T. B., Bandettini, P. A., Kenworthy, L., Case, L. K., Milleville, S. C., Martin, A., et al. (2010). Sources of group differences in functional connectivity: an investigation applied to autism spectrum disorder. Neuroimage 49, 401-414. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.07.051
36. Just, M. A., Keller, T. A., Malave, V. L., Kana, R. K., and Varma, S. (2012). Autism as a neural systems disorder: a theory of frontal-posterior underconnectivity. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 36, 1292-1313. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.02.007
37. Kang, H. C., Burgund, E. D., Lugar, H. M., Petersen, S. E., and Schlaggar, B. L. (2003). Comparison of functional activation foci in children and adults using a common stereotactic space. Neuroimage 19, 16-28. doi: 10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00038-7
38. Kennedy, D. P., and Courchesne, E. (2008). The intrinsic functional organization of the brain is altered in autism. Neuroimage 39, 1877-1885. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.10.052
39. Kenworthy, L., Black, D. O., Harrison, B., Della Rosa, A., and Wallace, G. L. (2009). Are executive control functions related to autism symptoms in high-functioning children. Child Neuropsychol. 15, 425-440. doi: 10.1080/09297040802646983
40. Kenworthy, L., Yerys, B. E., Anthony, L. G., and Wallace, G. L. (2008). Understanding executive control in autism spectrum disorders in the lab and in the real world. Neuropsychol. Rev. 18, 320-338. doi: 10.1007/s11065-008-9077-7
41. Kenworthy, L. E., Black, D. O., Wallace, G. L., Ahluvalia, T., Wagner, A. E., and Sirian, L. M. (2005). Disorganization: the forgotten executive dysfunction in high-functioning autism (HFA) spectrum disorders. Dev. Neuropsychol. 28, 809-827. doi: 10.1207/s15326942dn2803_4
42. Khan, S., Gramfort, A., Shetty, N. R., Kitzbichler, M. G., Ganesan, S., Moran, J. M., et al. (2013). Local and long-range functional connectivity is reduced in concert in autism spectrum disorders. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 110, 3107-3112. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1214533110
43. Lai, G., Pantazatos, S. P., Schneider, H., and Hirsch, J. (2012). Neural systems for speech and song in autism. Brain 135, 961-975. doi: 10.1093/brain/awr335
44. Lainhart, J. E., Bigler, E. D., Bocian, M., Coon, H., Dinh, E., Dawson, G., et al. (2006). Head circumference and height in autism: a study by the collaborative program of excellence in autism. Am. J. Med. Genet. A 140, 2257-2274. doi: 10.1002/ajmg.a.31465
45. Latora, V., and Marchiori, M. (2001). Efficient behavior of small-world networks. Phys. Rev. Lett. 87, 198701. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.87.198701
46. Lavigne, J. V., Cromley, T., Sprafkin, J., and Gadow, K. D. (2009). The child and adolescent symptom inventory-progress monitor: a brief diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th edition-referenced parent-report scale for children and adolescents. J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol. 19, 241-252. doi: 10.1089/cap.2008.052
47. Leyfer, O. T., Folstein, S. E., Bacalman, S., Davis, N. O., Dinh, E., Morgan, J., et al. (2006). Comorbid psychiatric disorders in children with autism: interview development and rates of disorders. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 36, 849-861. doi: 10.1007/s10803-006-0123-0
48. Lopez, B. R., Lincoln, A. J., Ozonoff, S., and Lai, Z. (2005). Examining the relationship between executive functions and restricted, repetitive symptoms of Autistic Disorder. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 35, 445-460. doi: 10.1007/s10803-005-5035-x
49. Lord, C., Risi, S., Lambrecht, L., Cook, E. H., Leventhal, B. L., DiLavore, P. C., et al. (2000). The autism diagnostic observation schedule-generic: a standard measure of social and communication deficits associated with the spectrum of autism. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 30, 205-223. doi: 10.1023/A:1005592401947
50. Lord, C., Rutter, M., and Le Couteur, A. (1994). Autism diagnostic interview-revised: a revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasive developmental disorders. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 24, 659-685. doi: 10.1007/BF02172145
51. Mennes, M., Kelly, C., Zuo, X.-N., Di Martino, A., Biswal, B., Castellanos, F. X., et al. (2010). Inter-individual differences in resting state functional connectivity predict task-induced BOLD activity. Neuroimage 50, 1690-1701. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.01.002
52. Mesulam, M. M. (1998). From sensation to cognition. Brain 121(Pt 6), 1013-1052. doi: 10.1093/brain/121.6.1013
53. Monk, C. S., Peltier, S. J., Wiggins, J. L., Weng, S.-J., Carrasco, M., Risi, S., et al. (2009). Abnormalities of intrinsic functional connectivity in autism spectrum disorders. Neuroimage 47, 764-772. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.04.069
54. Müller, R.-A., Shih, P., Keehn, B., Deyoe, J. R., Leyden, K. M., and Shukla, D. K. (2011). Underconnected, but how. A survey of functional connectivity MRI studies in autism spectrum disorders. Cereb. Cortex 21, 2233-2243. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhq296
55. Murphy, K., Birn, R. M., Handwerker, D. A., Jones, T. B., and Bandettini, P. A. (2009). The impact of global signal regression on resting state correlations: are anti-correlated networks introduced. Neuroimage 44, 893-905. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.09.036
56. Newman, M. E. J. (2006). Modularity and community structure in networks. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103, 8577-8582. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0601602103
57. Nir, Y., Hasson, U., Levy, I., Yeshurun, Y., and Malach, R. (2006). Widespread functional connectivity and fMRI fluctuations in human visual cortex in the absence of visual stimulation. Neuroimage 30, 1313-1324. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.11.018
58. Noonan, S. K., Haist, F., and Müller, R.-A. (2009). Aberrant functional connectivity in autism: evidence from low-frequency BOLD signal fluctuations. Brain Res. 1262, 48-63. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.12.076
59. Power, J. D., Barnes, K. A., Snyder, A. Z., Schlaggar, B. L., and Petersen, S. E. (2012). Spurious but systematic correlations in functional connectivity MRI networks arise from subject motion. Neuroimage 59, 2142-2154. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.10.018
60. Prifitera, A., Weiss, L. G., and Saklofske, D. H. (1998). "The WISC-III in context, " in WISC-III Clinical Use and Interpretation: Scientist-Practitioner Perspectives, eds A. Prifitera and D. H. Saklofske (NewYork, NY: Academic Press), 1-38. doi: 10.1016/B978-012564930-8/50002-4
61. Rojas, D. C., Singel, D., Steinmetz, S., Hepburn, S., and Brown, M. S. (2013). Decreased left perisylvian GABA concentration in children with autism and unaffected siblings. Neuroimage. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.01.045. [Epub ahead of print].
62. Rosenthal, M., Wallace, G. L., Lawson, R., Wills, M. C., Dixon, E., Yerys, B. E., et al. (2013). Impairments in real-world executive function increase from childhood to adolescence in autism spectrum disorders. Neuropsychology 27, 13-18. doi: 10.1037/a0031299
63. Rubia, K., Overmeyer, S., Taylor, E., Brammer, M., Williams, S. C., Simmons, A., et al. (1999). Hypofrontality in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder during higher-order motor control: a study with functional MRI. Am. J. Psychiatry 156, 891-896.
64. Rubinov, M., and Sporns, O. (2010). Complex network measures of brain connectivity: uses and interpretations. Neuroimage 52, 1059-1069. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.10.003
65. Saklofske, D. H., Prifitera, A., Weiss, L. G., Rolfhus, E., and Zhu, J. (2004). "Clinical Interpretation of the WISC-IV FSIQ and GAI, " in WISC-IV Clinical Use and Interpretation: Scientist-Practitioner Perspectives, (New York, NY: Academic Press), 36-71.
66. Satterthwaite, T. D., Wolf, D. H., Loughead, J., Ruparel, K., Elliott, M. A., Hakonarson, H., et al. (2012). Impact of in-scanner head motion on multiple measures of functional connectivity: relevance for studies of neurodevelopment in youth. Neuroimage 60, 623-632. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.12.063
67. Schmahmann, J. D., Smith, E. E., Eichler, F. S., and Filley, C. M. (2008). Cerebral white matter: neuroanatomy, clinical neurology, and neurobehavioral correlates. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1142, 266-309. doi: 10.1196/annals.1444.017
68. Sepulcre, J., Liu, H., Talukdar, T., Martincorena, I., Yeo, B. T. T., and Buckner, R. L. (2010). The organization of local and distant functional connectivity in the human brain. PLoS Comput. Biol. 6:e1000808. doi: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000808
69. Shih, P., Keehn, B., Oram, J. K., Leyden, K. M., Keown, C. L., and Müller, R.-A. (2011). Functional differentiation of posterior superior temporal sulcus in autism: a functional connectivity magnetic resonance imaging study. Biol. Psychiatry 70, 270-277. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.03.040
70. Shulman, G. L., Pope, D. L. W., Astafiev, S. V., McAvoy, M. P., Snyder, A. Z., and Corbetta, M. (2010). Right hemisphere dominance during spatial selective attention and target detection occurs outside the dorsal frontoparietal network. J. Neurosci. 30, 3640-3651. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4085-09.2010
71. Sikora, D. M., Vora, P., Coury, D. L., and Rosenberg, D. (2012). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms, adaptive functioning, and quality of life in children with autism spectrum disorder. Pediatrics 130(Suppl. 2), S91-S97. doi: 10.1542/peds.2012-0900G
72. Smith, S. M., Fox, P. T., Miller, K. L., Glahn, D. C., Fox, P. M., Mackay, C. E., et al. (2009). Correspondence of the brain's functional architecture during activation and rest. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S. A 106, 13040-13045. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0905267106
73. Smithson, P. E., Kenworthy, L., Wills, M. C., Jarrett, M., Atmore, K., and Yerys, B. E. (2013). Real world executive control impairments in preschoolers with autism spectrum disorders. J. Autism Dev. Disord. doi: 10.1007/s10803-012-1747-x. [Epub ahead of print].
74. Stevens, A. A., Tappon, S. C., Garg, A., and Fair, D. A. (2012). Functional brain network modularity captures inter-and intra-individual variation in working memory capacity. PLoS ONE 7:e30468. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0030468
75. Tellegen, A., and Briggs, P. F. (1967). Old wine in new skins: grouping Wechsler subtests into new scales. J. Consult. Psychol. 31, 499-506. doi: 10.1037/h0024963
76. Tsiaras, V., Simos, P. G., Rezaie, R., Sheth, B. R., Garyfallidis, E., Castillo, E. M., et al. (2011). Extracting biomarkers of autism from MEG resting-state functional connectivity networks. Comput. Biol. Med. 41, 1166-1177. doi: 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2011.04.004
77. Vaidya, C. J., Bunge, S. A., Dudukovic, N. M., Zalecki, C. A., Elliott, G. R., and Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2005). Altered neural substrates of cognitive control in childhood ADHD: evidence from functional magnetic resonance imaging. Am. J. Psychiatry 162, 1605-1613. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.162.9.1605
78. Van den Heuvel, M. P., Stam, C. J., Kahn, R. S., and Hulshoff Pol, H. E. (2009). Efficiency of functional brain networks and intellectual performance. J. Neurosci. 29, 7619-7624. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1443-09.2009
79. Van Dijk, K. R. A., Hedden, T., Venkataraman, A., Evans, K. C., Lazar, S. W., and Buckner, R. L. (2010). Intrinsic functional connectivity as a tool for human connectomics: theory, properties, and optimization. J. Neurophysiol. 103, 297-321. doi: 10.1152/jn.00783.2009
80. Van Essen, D. C. (2005). A population-average, landmark-and surface-based (PALS) atlas of human cerebral cortex. Neuroimage 28, 635-662. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.06.058
81. Vincent, J. L., Patel, G. H., Fox, M. D., Snyder, A. Z., Baker, J. T., Van Essen, D. C., et al. (2007). Intrinsic functional architecture in the anaesthetized monkey brain. Nature 447, 83-86. doi: 10.1038/nature05758
82. Von dem Hagen, E. A. H., Stoyanova, R. S., Baron-Cohen, S., and Calder, A. J. (2012). Reduced Functional Connectivity within and Between "social" Resting State Networks in Autism Spectrum Conditions. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. Available online at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22563003 (Accessed: 16, July, 2012).
83. Ward, B. D. (2000). Simultaneous Inference for fMRI Data. Biophysics Research Institute, Medical College of Wisconsin. Available online at: http://afni.nimh.nih.gov/pub/dist/doc/manual/AlphaSim.pdf.
84. Wechsler, D. (1999). Manual for the Wechsler Abbreviated Intelligence Scale (WASI). San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
85. Weiss, L. G., Saklofske, D. H., Prifitera, A., Chen, H.-Y., and Hildebrand, D. (1999). The calculation of the WISC-Ill general ability index using Canadian norms. Can. J. Sch. Psychol. 14, 1-10. doi: 10.1177/082957359901400202
86. Weng, S.-J., Wiggins, J. L., Peltier, S. J., Carrasco, M., Risi, S., Lord, C., et al. (2010). Alterations of resting state functional connectivity in the default network in adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Brain Res. 1313, 202-214. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.11.057
87. Wiggins, J. L., Peltier, S. J., Ashinoff, S., Weng, S.-J., Carrasco, M., Welsh, R. C., et al. (2011). Using a self-organizing map algorithm to detect age-related changes in functional connectivity during rest in autism spectrum disorders. Brain Res. 1380, 187-197. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2010.10.102
88. Wise, R. G., Ide, K., Poulin, M. J., and Tracey, I. (2004). Resting fluctuations in arterial carbon dioxide induce significant low frequency variations in BOLD signal. Neuroimage 21, 1652-1664. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.11.025
89. Yerys, B. E., Wallace, G. L., Harrison, B., Celano, M. J., Giedd, J. N., and Kenworthy, L. E. (2009a). Set-shifting in children with autism spectrum disorders: reversal shifting deficits on the Intradimensional/Extradimensional Shift Test correlate with repetitive behaviors. Autism 13, 523-538.
90. Yerys, B. E., Wallace, G. L., Sokoloff, J. L., Shook, D. A., James, J. D., and Kenworthy, L. (2009b). Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms moderate cognition and behavior in children with autism spectrum disorders. Autism Res. 2, 322-333.
91. Zink, C. F., Pagnoni, G., Martin, M. E., Dhamala, M., and Berns, G. S. (2003). Human striatal response to salient nonrewarding stimuli. J. Neurosci. 23, 8092-8097.