Dare to delay? The impacts of adolescent alcohol and marijuana use onset on cognition, brain structure, and function

Frontiers in Psychiatry

Volumn 4, Issue JUL, 2013, Pages

  Lisdahl, Krista ^a   Gilbart, Erika ^a   Wright, Natasha ^a   Shollenbarger, Skyler ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MILWAUKEE   (United States)

Author keywords

Adolescence; Age Onset; Alcohol; Binge Drinking; Cognition; Marijuana; MRI; Neuropsychology

Indexed keywords

ALCOHOL; CANNABIS;

ALCOHOL ABSTINENCE; ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; ALCOHOL USE DISORDER; ALCOHOLISM; ARTICLE; BEHAVIOR DISORDER; BINGE DRINKING; BRAIN DEVELOPMENT; BRAIN FUNCTION; CANNABIS ADDICTION; CANNABIS SMOKING; CHILD BEHAVIOR; COGNITION; COGNITIVE DEFECT; DIFFUSION TENSOR IMAGING; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY; EVENT RELATED POTENTIAL; FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; GRAY MATTER; HIGH RISK BEHAVIOR; HUMAN; IMPULSIVENESS; MEMORY DISORDER; NEUROANATOMY; NEUROIMAGING; NEUROTOXICITY; ONSET AGE; PREFRONTAL CORTEX; PSYCHOEDUCATION; SCREENING; SEX DIFFERENCE; SMOKING CESSATION; WHITE MATTER;

EID: 84884551746     PISSN: None     EISSN: 16640640     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00053     Document Type: Article

References (204)

1. Abdullaev, Y., Posner, M. I., Nunnally, R., and Dishion, T. J. (2010). Functional MRI evidence for inefficient attentional control in adolescent chronic cannabis abuse. Behav. Brain Res. 215, 45-57. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2010.06.023
2. Agosti, V., Nunes, E., and Levin, F. (2002). Rates of psychiatric comorbidity among U.S. residents with lifetime cannabis dependence. Am. J. Drug Alcohol Abuse 28, 643-652. doi:10.1081/ADA-120015873
3. Arnone, D., Barrick, T. R., Chengappa, S., Mackay, C. E., Clark, C. A., and Abou-Saleh, M. T. (2008). Corpus callosum damage in heavy marijuana use: preliminary evidence from diffusion tensor tractography and tract-based spatial statistics. Neuroimage 41, 1067-1074. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.02.064
4. Aronowitz, B., Liebowitz, M. R., Hollander, E., Fazzini, E., Durlach-Misteli, C., Frenkel, M., et al. (1994). Neuropsychiatric and neuropsychological findings in conduct disorder and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 6, 245-249.
5. Ashtari, M., Avants, B., Cyckowski, L., Cervellione, K. L., Roofeh, D., Cook, P., et al. (2011). Medial temporal structures and memory functions in adolescents with heavy cannabis use. J. Psychiatr. Res. 45, 1055-1066. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2011.01.004
6. Ashtari, M., Cervellione, K., Cottone, J., Ardekani, B. A., Sevy, S., and Kumra, S. (2009). Diffusion abnormalities in adolescents and young adults with a history of heavy cannabis use. J. Psychiatr. Res. 43, 189-204. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2008.12.002
7. Audrain-McGovern, J., Rodriguez, D., Wileyto, E. P., Schmitz, K. H., and Shields, P. G. (2006). Effect of team sport participation on genetic predisposition to adolescent smoking progression. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 63, 433-441. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.63.4.433
8. Barnea-Goraly, N., Menon, V., Eckert, M., Tamm, L., Bammer, R., Karchemskiy, A., et al. (2005). White matter development during childhood and adolescence: a cross-sectional diffusion tensor imaging study. Cereb. Cortex. 15, 1848-1854. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhi062
9. Barron, S., White, A., Swartzwelder, H. S., Bell, R. L., Rodd, Z. A., Slawecki, C. J., et al. (2005). Adolescent vulnerabilities to chronic alcohol or nicotine exposure: findings from rodent models. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 29, 1720-1725. doi:10.1097/01.alc.0000179220.79356.e5
10. Bava, S., Frank, L. R., McQueeny, T., Schweinsburg, B. C., Schweinsburg, A. D., and Tapert, S. F. (2009). Altered white matter microstructure in adolescent substance users.Psychiatry Res. 173, 228-237. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2009.04.005
11. Becker, B., Wagner, D., Gouzoulis-Mayfrank, E., Spuentrup, E., and Daumann, J. (2010a). The impact of early-onset cannabis use on functional brain correlates of working memory. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry. 34, 837-845. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2010.03.032
12. Becker, B., Wagner, D., Gouzoulis-Mayfrank, E., Spuentrup, E., and Daumann, J. (2010b). Altered parahippocampal functioning in cannabis users is related to the frequency of use. Psychopharmacology (Berl.). 209, 361-374. doi:10.1007/s00213-010-1805-z
13. Bjork, J. M., Hommer, D. W., Grant, S. J., and Danube, C. (2004). Impulsivity in abstinent alcohol-dependent patients: relation to control subjects and type 1-/type 2-like traits. Alcohol. 34, 133-150. doi:10.1016/j.alcohol.2004.06.012
14. Boecker, H., Henriksen, G., Sprenger, T., Miederer, I., Willoch, F., Valet, M., et al. (2008). Positron emission tomography ligand activation studies in the sports sciences: measuring neurochemistry in vivo. Methods 45, 307-318. doi:10.1016/j.ymeth.2008.07.003
15. Brisswalter, J., Collardeau, M., and RenÉ, A. (2002). Effects of acute physical exercise characteristics on cognitive performance. Sports Med. 32, 555-566. doi:10.2165/00007256-200232090-00002
16. Brown, S. A., and Tapert, S. F. (1999). Neuropsychological correlates of adolescent substance abuse: four-year outcomes. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 5, 481-493. doi:10.1017/S1355617799566010
17. Brown, S. A., Tapert, S. F., Granholm, E., and Delis, D. C. (2000). Neurocognitive functioning of adolescents: effects of protracted alcohol use. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 24, 164-171. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2000.tb04586.x
18. Caldwell, L. C., Schweinsburg, A. D., Nagel, B. J., Barlett, V. C., Brown, S. A., and Tapert, S. F. (2005). Gender and adolescent alcohol use disorders on BOLD (blood oxygen level dependent) response to spatial working memory. Alcohol Alcohol. 40, 194-200. doi:10.1093/alcalc/agh134
19. Casey, B. J., Galvan, A., and Hare, T. A. (2005). Changes in cerebral functional organization during cognitive development. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 15, 239-244. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2005.03.012
20. Casey, B. J., Getz, S., and Galvan, A. (2008). The adolescent brain. Dev. Rev. 28, 62-77. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2007.08.003
21. Casey, B. J., Trainor, R. J., Orendi, J. L., Schubert, A. B., Nystrom, L. E., Giedd, J. N., et al. (1997). A developmental functional MRI study of prefrontal activation during performance of a go-no-go task. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 9, 835-847. doi:10.1162/jocn.1997.9.6.835
22. Cha, Y. M., White, A. M., Kuhn, C. M., Wilson, W. A., and Swartzwelder, H. S. (2006). Differential effects of delta(9)-THC on learning in adolescent and adult rats. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 83, 448-455. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2006.03.006
23. Chaouloff, F. (1989). Physical exercise and brain monoamines: a review. Acta Physiol. Scand. 137, 1-13. doi:10.1111/j.1748-1716.1989.tb08715.x
24. Cheetham, A., Allen, N. B., Whittle, S., Simmons, J. G., YÜcel, M., and Lubman, D. I. (2012). Orbitofrontal volumes in early adolescence predict initiation of cannabis use: a 4-year longitudinal and prospective study. Biol. Psychiatry 71, 684-692. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.10.029
25. Chen, Y. C., Prescott, C. A., Walsh, D., Patterson, D. G., Riley, B. P., Kendler, K. S., et al. (2011). Different phenotypic and genotypic presentations in alcohol dependence: age at onset matters. J. Stud. Alcohol Drugs 72, 752-762.
26. Churchwell, J. C., Lopez-Larson, M., and Yurgelun-Todd, D. A. (2010). Altered frontal cortical volume and decision making in adolescent cannabis users. Front. Psychol. 1:225. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00225
27. Cloninger, C. R. (1987). Neurogenetic adaptive mechanisms in alcoholism. Science 236, 410-416. doi:10.1126/science.2882604
28. Coelho, F. G., Gobbi, S., Andreatto, C. A., Corazza, D. I., Pedroso, R. V., and Santos-Galduróz, R. F. (2013). Physical exercise modulates peripheral levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF): a systematic review of experimental studies in the elderly. Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 56, 10-15. doi:10.1016/j.archger.2012.06.003
29. Cohen-Z, M., Drummond, S. P. A., Padula, C. B., Winward, J., Kanady, J., Medina, K. L., et al. (2009).Sleep architecture in adolescent marijuana and alcohol users during acute and extended abstinence.Addict. Behav.34,967-969. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2009.05.011
30. Colcombe, S., and Kramer, A. F. (2003). Fitness effects on the cognitive function of older adults: a meta-analytic study. Psychol. Sci. 14, 125-130. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.t01-1-01430
31. Colcombe, S. J., Erickson, K. I., Scalf, P. E., Kim, J. S., Prakash, R., McAuley, E., et al. (2006). Aerobic exercise training increases brain volume in aging humans. J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. 61, 1166-1170. doi:10.1093/gerona/61.11.1166
32. Colcombe, S. J., Kramer, A. F., Erickson, K. I., Scalf, P., McAuley, E., Cohen, N. J., et al. (2004). Cardiovascular fitness, cortical plasticity, and aging. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101, 3316-3321. doi:10.1073/pnas.0400266101
33. Coleman, L. G. Jr., He, J., Lee, J., Styner, M., and Crews, F. T. (2011). Adolescent binge drinking alters adult brain neurotransmitter gene expression, behavior, brain regional volumes, and neurochemistry in mice. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 35, 671-688. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2010.01385.x
34. Cotman, C. W., and Berchtold, N. C. (2002). Exercise: a behavioral intervention to enhance brain health and plasticity. Trends Neurosci. 25, 295-301. doi:10.1016/S0166-2236(02)02143-4
35. Courtney, K. E., and Polich, J. (2010). Binge drinking effects on EEG in young adult humans. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 7, 2325-2336. doi:10.3390/ijerph7052325
36. Crego, A., Rodriguez-HolguÍn, S., Parada, M., Mota, N., Corral, M., and Cadaveira, F. (2010). Reduced anterior prefrontal cortex activation in young binge drinkers during a visual working memory task. Drug Alcohol Depend. 109, 45-56. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.11.020
37. Dawe, S., Gullo, M. J., and Loxton, N. J. (2004). Reward drive and rash impulsiveness as dimensions of impulsivity: implications for substance misuse. Addict. Behav. 29, 1389-1405. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2004.06.004
38. De Bellis, M. D., Clark, D. B., Beers, S. R., Soloff, P. H., Boring, A. M., Hall, J., et al. (2000). Hippocampal volume in adolescent-onset alcohol use disorders. Am. J. Psychiatry 157, 737-744. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.157.5.737
39. De Bellis, M. D., Narasimhan, A., Thatcher, D. L., Keshavan, M. S., Soloff, P., and Clark, D. B. (2005). Prefrontal cortex, thalamus and cerebellar volumes in adolescents and young adults with adolescent onset alcohol use disorders and co-morbid mental disorders. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 29, 1590-1600. doi:10.1097/01.alc.0000179368.87886.76
40. Degenhardt, L., Chiu, W. T., Sampson, N., Kessler, R. C., Anthony, J. C., Angermeyer, M., et al. (2008). Toward a global view of alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, and cocaine use: findings from the WHO World Mental Health Surveys. PLoS Med. 5:e141. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0050141
41. DeLisi, L. E., Bertisch, H. C., Szulc, K. U., Majcher, M., Brown, K., Bappal, A., et al. (2006). A preliminary DTI study showing no brain structural change associated with adolescent cannabis use. Harm. Reduct. J. 3, 17. doi:10.1186/1477-7517-3-17
42. Demir, B., Ulug, B., Lay ErgÜn, E., and Erbas, B. (2002). Regional cerebral blood flow and neuropsychological functioning in early and late onset alcoholism. Psychiatry Res. 115, 115-125. doi:10.1016/S0925-4927(02)00071-9
43. DeWit, D. J., Adlaf, E. M., Offord, D. R., and Ogborne, A. C. (2000). Age at first alcohol use: a risk factor for the development of alcohol disorders. Am. J. Psychiatry 157, 745-750. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.157.5.745
44. Dik, M., Deeg, D. J., Visser, M., and Jonker, C. (2003). Early life physical activity and cognition at old age. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol. 25, 643-653. doi:10.1076/jcen.25.5.643.14583
45. Dom, G., Hulstijn, W., and Sabbe, B. (2006a). Differences in impulsivity and sensation seeking between early- and late-onset alcoholics. Addict. Behav. 31, 298-308. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2005.05.009
46. Dom, G., D'haene, P., Hulstijn, W., and Sabbe, B. (2006b). Impulsivity in abstinent early- and late-onset alcoholics: differences in self-report measures and a discounting task. Addiction 101, 50-59. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01270.x
47. Dunn, A. L., and Dishman, R. K. (1991). Exercise and the neurobiology of depression. Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev. 19, 41-98. doi:10.1249/00003677-199101000-00002
48. Dunn, A. L., Reigle, T. G., Youngstedt, S. D., Armstrong, R. B., and Dishman, R. K. (1996). Brain norepinephrine and metabolites after treadmill training and wheel running in rats. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 28, 204-209. doi:10.1097/00005768-199602000-00008
49. Dustman, R. E., Emmerson, R. Y., Ruhling, R. O., Shearer, D. E., Steinhaus, L. A., Johnson, S. C., et al. (1990). Age and fitness effects on EEG, ERPs, visual sensitivity, and cognition. Neurobiol. Aging 11, 193-200. doi:10.1016/0197-4580(90)90545-B
50. Eaton, L. K., Kann, L., Kinchen, S., Ross, J., Hawkins, J., Harris, W. A., et al. (2006). Youth risk behavior surveillance - United States, 2005, surveillance summaries. MMWR Surveill. Summ. 55, 1-108.
51. Ehlers, C. L., Phillips, E., Finnerman, G., Gilder, D., Lau, P., and Criado, J. (2007). P3 components and adolescent binge drinking in Southwest California Indians. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 29, 153-163. doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2006.11.013
52. Ehrenreich, H., Rinn, T., Kunert, H. J., Moeller, M. R., Poser, W., Schilling, L., et al. (1999). Specific attentional dysfunction in adults following early start of marijuana use. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 142, 295-301. doi:10.1007/s002130050892
53. Elam, M., Svensson, T. H., and ThorÉn, P. (1987). Brain monoamine metabolism is altered in rats following spontaneous, long-distance running. Acta Physiol. Scand. 130, 313-316. doi:10.1111/j.1748-1716.1987.tb08142.x
54. Etnier, J., Salazar, W., Landers, D., Petruzzello, S., Han, M., and Nowell, P. (1997). The influence of physical fitness and exercise upon cognitive functioning: a meta-analysis. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 19, 249-277.
55. Feldstein Ewing, S. W., Mead, H. K., Yezhuvath, U., Dewitt, S., Hutchison, K. E., and Filbey, F. M. (2012). A preliminary examination of how serotonergic polymorphisms influence brain response following an adolescent cannabis intervention. Psychiatry Res. 204, 112-116. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2012.10.011
56. Ferris, L. T., Williams, J. S., and Shen, C. L. (2007). The effect of acute exercise on serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels and cognitive function. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 39, 728-734. doi:10.1249/mss.0b013e31802f04c7
57. Field, T., Diego, M., and Sanders, C. E. (2001). Exercise is positively related to adolescents' relationships and academics. Adolescence 36, 105-110.
58. Fontes, M. A., Bolla, K. I., Cunha, P. J., Almeida, P. P., Jungerman, F., Laranjeira, R. R., et al. (2011). Cannabis use before age 15 and subsequent executive functioning. Br. J. Psychiatry 198, 442-447. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.110.077479
59. Fried, P. A., Watkinson, B., and Gray, R. (2005). Neurocognitive consequences of marihuana-a comparison with pre-drug performance. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 27, 231-239. doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2004.11.003
60. Galvan, A., Hare, T. A., Parra, C. E., Penn, J., Voss, H., Glover, G., et al. (2006). Earlier development of the accumbens relative to orbitofrontal cortex might underlie risk-taking behavior in adolescents. J. Neurosci. 26, 6885-6892. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1062-06.2006
61. Gardener, M., and Steinberg, L. (2005). Peer influence on risk taking, risk preference, and risky decision making in adolescence and adulthood: an experimental study. Dev. Psychol. 41, 625-635. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.41.4.625
62. Giancola, P. R., Mezzich, A. C., and Tarter, R. E. (1998). Disruptive, delinquent and aggressive behavior in female adolescents with a psychoactive substance use disorder: relation to executive cognitive functioning. J. Stud. Alcohol 59, 560-567.
63. Giedd, J. N., Blumenthal, J., Jeffries, N. O., Castellanos, F. X., Liu, H., Zijdenbos, A., et al. (1999). Brain development during childhood and adolescence: a longitudinal MRI study. Nat. Neurosci. 2, 861-863. doi:10.1038/13158
64. Giedd, J. N., Snell, J. W., Lange, N., Rajapakse, J. C., Casey, B. J., Kozuch, P. L., et al. (1996a). Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging of human brain development: ages 4-18. Cereb. Cortex 6, 551-560. doi:10.1093/cercor/6.4.551
65. Giedd, J. N., Vaituzis, A. C., Hamburger, S. D., Lange, N., Rajapakse, J. C., Kaysen, D., et al. (1996b). Quantitative MRI of the temporal lobe, amygdala, and hippocampus in normal human development: ages 4-18 years. J. Comp. Neurol. 366, 223-230. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19960304)366:2<223::AIDCNE3>;3.0.CO;2-7
66. Gilligan, S. B., Reich, T., and Cloninger, C. R. (1988). Alcohol-related symptoms in heterogeneous families of hospitalized alcoholics. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 12, 671-678. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.1988.tb00263.x
67. Gilman, J. M., Ramchandani, V. A., Crouss, T., and Hommer, D. W.(2012). Subjective and neural responses to intravenous alcohol in young adults with light and heavy drinking patterns.Neuropsychopharmacology.37,467-477. doi:10.1038/npp.2011.206
68. Gogtay, N., Giedd, J. N., Lusk, L., Hayashi, K. M., Greenstein, D., Vaituzis, A. C., et al. (2004). Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 101, 8174-8179. doi:10.1073/pnas.0402680101
69. Gonzalez, R., Schuster, R. M., Mermelstein, R. J., Vassileva, J., Martin, E. M., and Diviak, K. R. (2012). Performance of young adult cannabis users on neurocognitive measures of impulsive behavior and their relationship to symptoms of cannabis use disorders. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol. 34, 962-976. doi:10.1080/13803395.2012.703642
70. Grant, J. E., Chamberlain, S. R., Schreiber, L., and Odlaug, B. L. (2012). Neuropsychological deficits associated with cannabis use in young adults. Drug Alcohol Depend. 121, 159-162. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.08.015
71. Gruber, S. A., Dahlgren, M. K., Sagar, K. A., GÖnenc, A., and Killgore, W. D. (2012). Age of onset of marijuana use impacts inhibitory processing. Neurosci. Lett. 511, 89-94. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2012.01.039
72. Gruber, S. A., Silveri, M. M., Dahlgren, M. K., and Yurgelun-Todd, D. (2011). Why so impulsive? White matter alterations are associated with impulsivity in chronic marijuana smokers. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 19, 231-242. doi:10.1037/a0023034
73. Hanson, K. L., Medina, K. L., Nagel, B. J., Spadoni, A. D., Gorlick, A., and Tapert, S. F. (2010a). Hippocampal volumes in adolescents with and without a family history of alcoholism. Am. J. Drug Alcohol Abuse 36, 161-167. doi:10.3109/00952991003736397
74. Hanson, K. L., Winward, J. L., Schweinsburg, A. D., Medina, K. L., Brown, S. A., and Tapert, S. F. (2010b). Longitudinal study of cognition among adolescent marijuana users over three weeks of abstinence. Addict. Behav. 35, 970-976. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.06.012
75. Hanson, K. L., Medina, K. L., Padula, C. B., Tapert, S. F., and Brown, S. A. (2011). How does adolescent alcohol and drug use affect neuropsychological functioning in young adulthood: 10-year outcomes. J. Child Adolesc. Subst. Abuse 20, 135-154.
76. Harding, I. H., Solowij, N., Harrison, B. J., Takagi, M., Lorenzetti, V., Lubman, D. I., et al. (2012). Functional connectivity in brain networks underlying cognitive control in chronic cannabis users. Neuropsychopharmacology 37, 1923-1933. doi:10.1038/npp.2012.39
77. Hartley, D. E., Elsabagh, S., and File, S. E. (2004). Binge drinking and sex: effects on mood and cognitive function in healthy young volunteers. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 78, 611-619. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2004.04.027
78. Harvey, M. A., Sellman, J. D., Porter, R. J., and Frampton, C. M. (2007). The relationship between non-acute adolescent marijuana use and cognition. Drug Alcohol Rev. 26, 309-319. doi:10.1080/09595230701247772
79. Helfer, J. L., Goodlett, C. R., Greenough, W. T., and Klintsova, A. Y. (2009). The effects of exercise on adolescent hippocampal neurogenesis in a rat model of binge alcohol exposure during the brain growth spurt. Brain Res. 19, 1-11. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2009.07.090
80. Heyes, M. P., Garnett, E. S., and Coates, G. (1985). Central dopaminergic activity influences rats ability to exercise. Life Sci. 36, 671-677. doi:10.1016/0024-3205(85)90172-9
81. Heyn, P., Abreu, B. C., and Ottenbacher, K. J. (2004). The effects of exercise training on elderly persons with cognitive impairment and dementia: a meta-analysis. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 85, 1694-1704. doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2004.03.019
82. Hicks, B. M., Durbin, C. E., Blonigen, D. M., Iacono, W. G., and McGue, M. (2012). Relationship between personality change and the onset and course of alcohol dependence in young adulthood. Addiction 107, 540-548. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03617.x
83. Hicks, B. M., Iacono, W. G., and McGue, M. (2010). Consequences of an adolescent onset and persistent course of alcohol dependence in men: adolescent risk factors and adult outcomes. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 34, 819-833. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2010.01154.x
84. Hill, S. Y., Muddasani, S., Prasad, K., Nutche, J., Steinhauer, S. R., Scanlon, J., et al. (2007a). Cerebellar volume in offspring from multiplex alcohol dependence families. Biol. Psychiatry 61, 41-47. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.01.007
85. Hill, S. Y., Kostelnik, B., Holmes, B., Goradia, D., McDermott, M., Diwadkar, V., et al. (2007b). fMRI BOLD response to the eyes task in offspring from multiplex alcohol dependence families. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 31, 2028-2035. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2007.00535.x
86. Hillman, C. H., Erickson, K. I., and Kramer, A. F. (2008). Be smart, exercise your heart: exercise effects on brain and cognition. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 9, 58-65. doi:10.1038/nrn2298
87. Hillman, C. H., Snook, E. M., and Jerome, G. J. (2003). Acute cardiovascular exercise and executive control function. Int. J. Psychophysiol. 48, 307-314. doi:10.1016/S0167-8760(03)00080-1
88. Howard, R., Finn, P., Jose, P., and Gallagher, J. (2011). Adolescent-onset alcohol abuse exacerbates the influence of childhood conduct disorder on late adolescent and early adult antisocial behaviour. J. Forens. Psychiatry Psychol. 23, 7-22. doi:10.1080/14789949.2011.641996
89. Huestegge, L., Radach, R., Kunert, H. J., and Heller, D. (2002). Visual search in long-term cannabis users with early age of onset. Prog. Brain Res. 140, 377-394. doi:10.1016/S0079-6123(02)40064-7
90. Jacobsen, L. K., Pugh, K. R., Constable, R. T., Westerveld, M., and Mencl, W. E. (2007). Functional correlates of verbal memory deficits emerging during nicotine withdrawal in abstinent adolescent marijuana users. Biol. Psychiatry 61, 31-40. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.02.014
91. Jacobus, J., Goldenberg, D., Wierenga, C. E., Tolentino, N. J., Liu, T. T., and Tapert, S. F. (2012). Altered cerebral blood flow and neurocognitive correlates in adolescent cannabis users. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 222, 675-684. doi:10.1007/s00213-012-2674-4
92. Jager, G., Block, R. I., Luijten, M., and Ramsey, N. F. (2010). Cannabis use and memory brain function in adolescent boys: a cross-sectional multicenter functional magnetic resonance imaging study. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 49, 561-572. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2010.02.001
93. Jarvis, K., DelBello, M. P., Mills, N., Elman, I., Strakowski, S. M., and Adler, C. M. (2008). Neuroanatomic comparison of bipolar adolescents with and without cannabis use disorders. J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol. 18, 557-563. doi:10.1089/cap.2008.033
94. Jernigan, T., and Gamst, A. (2005). Changes in volume with age: consistency and interpretation of observed effects. Neurobiol. Aging 26, 1271-1274. doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2005.05.016
95. Johnson, B. A., Cloninger, C. R., Roache, J. D., Bordnick, P. S., and Ruiz, P. (2000). Age of onset as a discriminator between alcoholic subtypes in a treatment-seeking outpatient population. Am. J. Addict. 9, 17-27. doi:10.1080/10550490050172191
96. Johnston, L. D., O'Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., and Schulenberg, J. E. (2009). Monitoring the Future National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975 -2008: Volume II, College Students and Adults Ages 19-50 (NIH Publication No. 09-7403). Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.
97. Johnston, L. D., O'Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., and Schulenberg, J. E. (2010). Monitoring the Future National Results on Adolescent Drug Use: Overview of Key Findings, 2009 (NIH Publication No. 10-7583). Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.
98. Johnston, L. D., O'Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., and Schulenberg, J. E. (2011). Marijuana use Continues to Rise Among U.S. Teens, While Alcohol use Hits Historic Lows. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan News Service.
99. Kloos, A., Weller, R. A., Chan, R., and Weller, E. B. (2009). Gender differences in adolescent substance abuse. Curr. Psychiatry Rep. 11, 120-126. doi:10.1007/s11920-009-0019-8
100. Knight, J. R., Sherritt, L., Shrier, L. A., Harris, S. K., and Chang, G. (2002). Validity of the CRAFFT substance abuse screening test among adolescent clinic patients. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 156, 607-614.
101. Kolb, B., Mychasiuk, R., Muhammad, A., Li, Y., Frost, D. O., and Gibb, R. (2012). Experience and the developing prefrontal cortex. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 16, 109. doi:10.1073/pnas.1121251109
102. Koskinen, S. M., Ahveninen, J., Kujala, T., Kaprio, J., O'Donnell, B. F., Osipova, D., et al. (2011). A longitudinal twin study of effects of adolescent alcohol abuse on the neurophysiology of attention and orienting. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 35, 1339-1350. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01470.x
103. Kramer, A. F., and Erickson, K. I. (2007). Capitalizing on cortical plasticity: influence of physical activity on cognition and brain function. Trends Cogn. Sci. (Regul. Ed.) 11, 342-348. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2007.06.009
104. Larimer, M. E., and Cronce, J. M. (2007). Identification, prevention, and treatment revisited: individual-focused college drinking prevention strategies 1999-2006. Addict. Behav. 32, 2439-2468. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.05.006
105. Lee, S. S., Humphreys, K. L., Flory, K., Liu, R., and Glass, K. (2011). Prospective association of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and substance use and abuse/dependence: a meta-analytic review. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 31, 328-341. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2011.01.006
106. Lenroot, R. K., and Giedd, J. N. (2006). Brain development in children and adolescents: insights from anatomical magnetic resonance imaging. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 30, 718-729. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2006.06.001
107. Lenroot, R. K., and Giedd, J. N. (2010). Sex differences in the adolescent brain. Brain Cogn. 72, 46-55. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2009.10.008
108. Lenroot, R. K., Gogtay, N., Greenstein, D. K., Wells, E. M., Wallace, G. L., Clasen, L. S., et al. (2007). Sexual dimorphism of brain developmental trajectories during childhood and adolescence. Neuroimage 36, 1065-1073. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.03.053
109. Lisdahl, K. M., and Price, J. S. (2012). Increased marijuana use and gender predict poorer cognitive functioning in healthy emerging adults. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 18, 678-688. doi:10.1017/S1355617712000276
110. Lisdahl, K. M., Thayer, R., Squeglia, L., McQueeny, T. M., and Tapert, S. T. (2013). Cerebellar structure in adolescent binge drinkers. Psychiatry Res. 211, 17-23. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2012.07.009
111. Liston, C., Watts, R., Tottenham, N., Davidson, M. C., Niogi, S., Ulug, A. M., et al. (2006). Frontostriatal microstructure modulates efficient recruitment of cognitive control. Cereb. Cortex 16, 553-560. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhj003
112. López-Caneda, E., Cadaveira, F., Crego, A., Gómez-Suárez, A., Corral, M., Parada, M., et al. (2012). Hyperactivation of right inferior frontal cortex in young binge drinkers during response inhibition: a follow-up study. Addiction 107, 1796-1808. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2012.03908.x
113. Lopez-Larson, M. P., Bogorodzki, P., Rogowska, J., McGlade, E., King, J. B., Terry, J., et al. (2011). Altered prefrontal and insular cortical thickness in adolescent marijuana users. Behav. Brain Res. 220, 164-172. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.02.001
114. Lopez-Larson, M. P., Rogowska, J., Bogorodzki, P., Bueler, C. E., McGlade, E. C., and Yurgelun-Todd, D. A. (2012). Cortico-cerebellar abnormalities in adolescents with heavy marijuana use. Psychiatry Res. 202, 224-232. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2011.11.005
115. Lynskey, M., and Hall, W. (2000). The effects of adolescent cannabis use on educational attainment: a review. Addiction 95, 1621-1630. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.2000.951116213.x
116. Lyvers, M., Czerczyk, C., Follent, A., and Lodge, P. (2009). Disinhibition and reward sensitivity in relation to alcohol consumption by university undergraduates. Addict. Res. Theory 17, 668-677.
117. Lyvers, M., Duff, H., and Hasking, P. (2011). Risky alcohol use and age of onset of regular alcohol consumption in relation to frontal lobe indices, reward sensitivity and rash impulsiveness. Addict. Res. Theory 19, 251-259.
118. Ma, Q. (2008). Beneficial effects of moderate voluntary physical exercise and its biological mechanisms on brain health. Neurosci. Bull. 24, 265-270. doi:10.1007/s12264-008-0402-1
119. Macher, R. B., and Earleywine, M. (2012). Enhancing neuropsychological performance in chronic cannabis users: the role of motivation. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol. 34, 405-415. doi:10.1080/13803395.2011.646957
120. Marks, B. L., Madden, D. J., Bucur, B., Provenzale, J. M., White, L. E., Cabeza, R., et al. (2007). Role of aerobic fitness and aging on cerebral white matter integrity. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1097, 171-174. doi:10.1196/annals.1379.022
121. Martin, C. S., Kaczynski, N. A., Maisto, S. A., and Tarter, R. E. (1996). Polydrug use in adolescent drinkers with and without DSM-IV alcohol abuse and dependence. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 20, 1099-1108. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.1996.tb01953.x
122. Mathias, C. W., Blumenthal, T. D., Dawes, M. A., Liguori, A., Richard, D. M., Bray, B., et al. (2011). Failure to sustain prepulse inhibition in adolescent marijuana users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 116, 110-116. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.11.020
123. Maurage, P. M., Pesenti, M., Philippot, P., Joassin, F., and Campanella, S. (2009). Latent deleterious effects of binge drinking over a short period of time revealed only by electrophysiological measures. J. Psychiatry Neurosci. 34, 111-118.
124. McHale, S., and Hunt, N. (2008). Executive function deficits in short-term abstinent cannabis users. Hum. Psychopharmacol. 23, 409-415. doi:10.1002/hup.941
125. McQueeny, T., Schweinsburg, B. C., Schweinsburg, A. D., Jacobus, J., Bava, S., Frank, L. R., et al. (2009). Altered white matter integrity in adolescent binge drinkers. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 33, 1278-1285. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.00953.x
126. McQueeny, T. M., Padula, C., Price, J., Medina, K. L., Logan, P., and Tapert, S. F. (2011). Gender effects on amygdala morphometry in adolescent marijuana users. Behav. Brain Res. 224, 128-134. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.05.031
127. Medina, K. L., Hanson, K., Schweinsburg, A. D., Cohen-Zion, M., Nagel, B. J., and Tapert, S. F. (2007a). Neuropsychological functioning in adolescent marijuana users: subtle deficits detectable after 30 days of abstinence. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 13, 807-820. doi:10.1017/S1355617707071032
128. Medina, K. L., Nagel, B. J., McQueeny, T., Park, A., and Tapert, S. F. (2007b). Depressive symptoms in adolescents: associations with white matter volume and marijuana use. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 48, 592-600. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01728.x
129. Medina, K. L., Schweinsburg, A. D., Cohen-Zion, M., Nagel, B. J., and Tapert, S. F. (2007c). Effects of alcohol and combined marijuana and alcohol use during adolescence on hippocampal asymmetry. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 29, 141-152. doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2006.10.010
130. Medina, K. L., McQueeny, T., Nagel, B. J., Hanson, K., Schweinsburg, A. D., and Tapert, S. F. (2008). Prefrontal cortex volumes in adolescents with alcohol use disorders: unique gender effects. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 32, 386-394. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2007.00602.x
131. Medina, K. L., McQueeny, T., Nagel, B. J., Hanson, K. L., Yang, T., and Tapert, S. F. (2009). Prefrontal morphometry in abstinent adolescent marijuana users: subtle gender effects. Addict. Biol. 14, 457-468. doi:10.1111/j.1369-1600.2009.00166.x
132. Medina, K. L., Nagel, B. J., and Tapert, S. F. (2010). Cerebellar vermis abnormality in adolescent marijuana users. Psychiatry Res. 182, 152-159. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2009.12.004
133. Meier, M. H., Caspi, A., Ambler, A., Harrington, H., Houts, R., Keefe, R. S., et al. (2012). Persistent cannabis users show neuropsychological decline from childhood to midlife. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 109, E2657-E2664. doi:10.1073/pnas.1206820109
134. Monk, C. S., McClure, E. B., Nelson, E. E., Zarahn, E., Bilder, R. M., Leibenluft, E., et al. (2003). Adolescent immaturity in attention-related brain engagement to emotional facial expressions. Neuroimage 20, 420-428. doi:10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00355-0
135. Monti, P. M., Miranda, R., Nixon, K., Sher, K. J., Swartzwelder, H. S., Tapert, S. F., et al. (2005). Adolescence: booze, brains, and behavior. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 29, 207-220. doi:10.1097/01.ALC.0000153551.11000.F3
136. Moss, H. B., Kirisci, L., Gordon, H. W., and Tarter, R. E. (1994). A neuropsychologic profile of adolescent alcoholics. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 18, 159-163. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.1994.tb00897.x
137. Nagel, B. J., Medina, K. L., Yoshii, J., Schweinsburg, A. D., Moadab, I., and Tapert, S. F. (2006). Age related changes in prefrontal white matter volume across adolescence. Neuroreport 17, 1427-1431. doi:10.1097/01.wnr.0000233099.97784.45
138. Nagel, B. J., Schweinsburg, A. D., Phan, V., and Tapert, S. F. (2005). Reduced hippocampal volume among adolescents with alcohol use disorders without psychiatric comorbidity. Psychiatry Res. 139, 181-190. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2005.05.008
139. Nigg, J. T., Glass, J. M., Wong, M. M., Poon, E., Jester, J. M., Fitzgerald, H. E., et al. (2004). Neuropsychological executive functioning in children at elevated risk for alcoholism: findings in early adolescence. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 113, 302-314. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.113.2.302
140. O'Shea, M., Singh, M. E., McGregor, I. S., and Mallet, P. E. (2004). Chronic cannabinoid exposure produces lasting memory impairment and increased anxiety in adolescent but not adult rats. J. Psychopharmacol. 18, 502-508. doi:10.1177/0269881104047277
141. Parada, M., Corral, M., Caamaño-Isorna, F., Mota, N., Crego, A., HolguÍn, S. R., et al. (2011). Binge drinking and declarative memory in university students. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 35, 1475-1484. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01484.x
142. Parada, M., Corral, M., Mota, N., Crego, A., RodrÍguez HolguÍn, S., and Cadaveira, F. (2012). Executive functioning and alcohol binge drinking in university students. Addict. Behav. 37, 167-172. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2011.09.015
143. Pardo, Y., Aguilar, R., Molinuevo, B., and Torrubia, R. (2007). Alcohol use as a behavioural sign of disinhibition: evidence from J.A. Gray's model of personality. Addict. Behav. 32, 2398-2403. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.02.010
144. Park, M. S., Sohn, S., Park, J. E., Kim, S. H., Yu, I. K., and Sohn, J. H. (2011). Brain functions associated with verbal working memory tasks among young males with alcohol use disorders. Scand. J. Psychol. 52, 1-7. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2010.00848.x
145. Paus, T., Zijdenbos, A., Worsley, K., Collins, D. L., Blumenthal, J., Giedd, J. N., et al. (1999). Structural maturation of neural pathways in children and adolescents: in vivo study. Science 283, 1908-1911. doi:10.1126/science.283.5409.1908
146. Pereira, A. C., Huddleston, D. E., Brickman, A. M., Sosunov, A. A., Hen, R., McKhann, G. M., et al. (2007). An in vivo correlate of exercise-induced neurogenesis in the adult dentate gyrus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104, 5638-5643. doi:10.1073/pnas.0611721104
147. Ploughman, M. (2008). Exercise is brain food: the effects of physical activity on cognitive function. Dev. Neurorehabil. 11, 236-240. doi:10.1080/17518420801997007
148. Pope, H. Jr., Gruber, A., Hudson, J., Cohane, G., Huestis, M., and Yurgelun-Todd, D. (2003). Early-onset cannabis use and cognitive deficits: what is the nature of the association? Drug Alcohol Depend. 69, 303.
149. Prescot, A. P., Locatelli, A. E., Renshaw, P. F., and Yurgelun-Todd, D. A. (2011). Neurochemical alterations in adolescent chronic marijuana smokers: a proton MRS study. Neuroimage 57, 69-75. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.02.044
150. Quinn, H. R., Matsumoto, I., Callaghan, P. D., Long, L. E., Arnold, J. C., Gunasekaran, N., et al. (2008). Adolescent rats find repeated ?9-THC less aversive than adult rats but display greater residual cognitive deficits and changes in hippocampal protein expression following exposure. Neuropsychopharmacology 33, 1113-1126. doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1301475
151. Radak, Z., Kumagai, S., Taylor, A. W., Naito, H., and Goto, S. (2007). Effects of exercise on brain function: role of free radicals. Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 32, 942-946. doi:10.1139/H07-081
152. Raphael, D. (2013). Adolescence as a gateway to adult health outcomes. Maturitas 75, 137-141. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2013.03.013
153. Read, J. P., Merrill, J. E., Kahler, C. W., and Strong, D. R. (2007). Predicting functional outcomes among college drinkers: reliability and predictive validity of the Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire. Addict. Behav. 32, 2597-2610. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.06.021
154. Ridenour, T. A., Tarter, R. E., Reynolds, M., Mezzich, A., Kirisci, L., and Vanyukov, M. (2009). Neurobehavior disinhibition, parental substance use disorder, neighborhood quality and development of cannabis use disorder in boys. Drug Alcohol Depend. 102, 71-77. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.01.009
155. Rubino, T., Realini, N., Braida, D., Guidi, S., Capurro, V., Viganò, D., et al. (2009). Changes in hippocampal morphology and neuroplasticity induced by adolescent THC treatment are associated with cognitive impairment in adulthood. Hippocampus 19, 763-772. doi:10.1002/hipo.20554
156. Rubino, T., Vigano, D., Realini, N., Guidali, C., Braida, D., Capurro, V., et al. (2008). Chronic delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol during adolescence provokes sex-dependent changes in the emotional profile in adult rats: behavioral and biochemical correlates. Neuropsychopharmacology 33, 2760-2771. doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1301664
157. Sakurai, T., Izawa, T., Kizaki, T., Ogasawara, J. E., Shirato, K., Imaizumi, K., et al. (2009). Exercise training decreases expression of inflammation-related adipokines through reduction of oxidative stress in rat white adipose tissue. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 379, 605-609. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2008.12.127
158. Scaife, J. C., and Duka, T. (2009). Behavioural measures of frontal lobe function in a population of young social drinkers with binge drinking pattern. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 93, 354-362. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2009.05.015
159. Schneider, M., and Koch, M. (2003). Chronic pubertal but not adult chronic cannabinoid treatment impairs sensorimotor gating, recognition memory and performance in a progressive ratio task in adult rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 28, 1760-1790. doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1300225
160. Schuster, R. M., Crane, N. A., Mermelstein, R., and Gonzalez, R. (2012). The influence of inhibitory control and episodic memory on the risky sexual behavior of young adult cannabis users. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 18, 827-833. doi:10.1017/S1355617712000586
161. Schwartz, R. H., Gruenewald, P. J., Klitzner, M., and Fedio, P. (1989). Short-term memory impairment in cannabis-dependent adolescents. Am. J. Dis. Child. 143, 1214-1219.
162. Schweinsburg, A. D., McQueeny, T., Nagel, B. J., Eyler, L. T., and Tapert, S. F. (2010a). A preliminary study of functional magnetic resonance imaging response during verbal encoding among adolescent binge drinkers. Alcohol 44, 111-117. doi:10.1016/j.alcohol.2009.09.032
163. Schweinsburg, A. D., Schweinsburg, B. C., Medina, K. L., McQueeny, T., Brown, S. A., and Tapert, S. F. (2010b). The influence of recency of use on fMRI response during spatial working memory in adolescent marijuana users. J. Psychoactive Drugs 42, 401-412. doi:10.1080/02791072.2010.10400703
164. Schweinsburg, A. D., Nagel, B. J., Schweinsburg, B. C., Park, A., Theilmann, R. J., and Tapert, S. F. (2008). Abstinent adolescent marijuana users show altered fMRI response during spatial working memory. Psychiatry Res. 163, 40-51. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2007.04.018
165. Schweinsburg, A. D., Paulus, M. P., Barlett, V. C., Killeen, L. A., Caldwell, L. C., Pulido, C., et al. (2004). An FMRI study of response inhibition in youths with a family history of alcoholism. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1021, 391-394. doi:10.1196/annals.1308.050
166. Sher, K. J., Martin, E. D., Wood, P. K., and Rutledge, P. C. (1997). Alcohol use disorders and neuropsychological functioning in first-year undergraduates. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 5, 304-315. doi:10.1037/1064-1297.5.3.304
167. Sibley, B., and Etnier, J. (2003). The relationship between physical activity and cognition in children: a meta-analysis. Pediatr. Exerc. Sci. 15, 243-256.
168. Silveri, M. M., Jensen, J. E., Rosso, I. M., Sneider, J. T., and Yurgelun-Todd, D. A. (2011). Preliminary evidence for white matter metabolite differences in marijuana-dependent young men using 2D J-resolved magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging at 4 Tesla. Psychiatry Res. 191, 201-211. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2010.10.005
169. Sim, Y. J., Kim, H., Shin, M. S., Chang, H. K., Shin, M. C., Ko, I. G., et al. (2008). Effect of postnatal treadmill exercise on c-Fos expression in the hippocampus of rat pups born from the alcohol-intoxicated mothers. Brain Dev. 30, 118-125. doi:10.1016/j.braindev.2007.07.003
170. Smith, A. M., Longo, C. A., Fried, P. A., Hogan, M. J., and Cameron, I. (2010). Effects of marijuana on visuospatial working memory: an fMRI study in young adults. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 210, 429-438. doi:10.1007/s00213-010-1841-8
171. Solowij, N., Jones, K. A., Rozman, M. E., Davis, S. M., Ciarrochi, J., Heaven, P. C., et al. (2011). Verbal learning and memory in adolescent cannabis users, alcohol users and non-users. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 216, 131-144. doi:10.1007/s00213-011-2203-x
172. Solowij, N., Jones, K. A., Rozman, M. E., Davis, S. M., Ciarrochi, J., Heaven, P. C., et al. (2012). Reflection impulsivity in adolescent cannabis users: a comparison with alcohol-using and non-substance-using adolescents. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 219, 575-586. doi:10.1007/s00213-011-2486-y
173. Sowell, E. R., Thompson, P., Leonard, C. M., Welcome, S. E., Kan, E., and Toga, A. W. (2004). Longitudinal mapping of cortical thickness and brain growth in normal children. J. Neurosci. 24, 8223-8231. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1798-04.2004
174. Sowell, E. R., Thompson, P. M., Holmes, C. J., Jernigan, T. L., and Toga, A. W. (1999). In vivo evidence for post adolescent brain maturation in frontal and striatal regions. Nat. Neurosci. 2, 859-861. doi:10.1038/13154
175. Sowell, E. R., Trauner, D. A., Gamst, A., and Jernigan, T. L. (2002). Development of cortical and subcortical brain structures in childhood and adolescence: a structural MRI study. Dev. Med. Child Neurol. 44, 4-16. doi:10.1017/S0012162201001591
176. Spadoni, A. D., Norman, A. L., Schweinsburg, A. D., and Tapert, S. F. (2008). Effects of family history of alcohol use disorders on spatial working memory BOLD response in adolescents. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 32, 1135-1145. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2008.00694.x
177. Spear, L. P. (2000). The Adolescent Brain and Age-Related Behavioral Manifestations. New York, NY: Norton & Company, Inc.
178. Spear, L. P. (2010). The behavioral neuroscience of adolescence. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 24, 417-463. doi:10.1016/S0149-7634(00)00014-2
179. Squeglia, L. M., Schweinsburg, A. D., Pulido, C., and Tapert, S. F. (2011). Adolescent binge drinking linked to abnormal spatial working memory brain activation: differential gender effects. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 35, 1831-1841. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01527.x
180. Squeglia, L. M., Sorg, S. F., Schweinsburg, A. D., Wetherill, R. R., Pulido, C., and Tapert, S. F. (2012). Binge drinking differentially affects adolescent male and female brain morphometry. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 220, 529-539. doi:10.1007/s00213-011-2500-4
181. Sullivan, J. L., Baenziger, J. C., Wagner, D. L., Rauscher, F. P., Nurnberger, J. I. Jr., and Holmes, J. S. (1990). Platelet MAO in subtypes of alcoholism. Biol. Psychiatry 27, 911-922. doi:10.1016/0006-3223(90)90473-F
182. Tait, R. J., Mackinnon, A., and Christensen, H. (2011). Cannabis use and cognitive function: 8-year trajectory in a young adult cohort. Addiction 106, 2195-2203. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03574.x
183. Tapert, S. F., Baratta, M. V., Abrantes, A. M., and Brown, S. A. (2002a). Attention dysfunction predicts substance involvement in community youths. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 41, 680-686. doi:10.1097/00004583-200206000-00007
184. Tapert, S. F., Granholm, E., Leedy, N. G., and Brown, S. A. (2002b). Substance use and withdrawal: neuropsychological functioning over 8 years in youth. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 8, 873-883. doi:10.1017/S1355617702870011
185. Themanson, J. R., Hillman, C. H., and Curtin, J. J. (2006). Age and physical activity influences on action monitoring during task switching. Neurobiol. Aging 27, 1335-1345. doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2005.07.002
186. Tapert, S. F., Brown, G. G., Kindermann, S. S., Cheung, E. H., Frank, L. R., and Brown, S. A. (2001). fMRI measurement of brain dysfunction in alcohol-dependent young women. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 25, 236-245. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2001.tb02204.x
187. Tapert, S. F., and Brown, S. A. (1999). Neuropsychological correlates of adolescent substance abuse: four year outcomes. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 5, 481-493. doi:10.1017/S1355617799566010
188. Tapert, S. F., and Brown, S. A. (2000). Substance dependence, family history of alcohol dependence, and neuropsychological functioning in adolescence. Addiction 95, 1043-1053. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.2000.95710436.x
189. Tapert, S. F., Schweinsburg, A. D., Barlett, V. C., Brown, S. A., Frank, L. R., Brown, G. G., et al. (2004). Blood oxygen level dependent response and spatial working memory in adolescents with alcohol use disorders. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 28, 1577-1586. doi:10.1097/01.ALC.0000141812.81234.A6
190. Tapert, S. F., Schweinsburg, A. D., Drummond, S. P., Paulus, M. P., Brown, S. A., Yang, T. T., et al. (2007). Functional MRI of inhibitory processing in abstinent adolescent marijuana users. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 194, 173-183. doi:10.1007/s00213-007-0823-y
191. Themanson, J. R., and Hillman, C. H. (2006). Cardiorespiratory fitness and acute aerobic exercise effects on neuroelectric and behavioral measures of action monitoring. Neuroscience 141, 757-767. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.04.004
192. Thoma, R. J., Monnig, M. A., Lysne, P. A., Ruhl, D. A., Pommy, J. A., Bogenschutz, M., et al. (2011). Adolescent substance abuse: the effects of alcohol and marijuana on neuropsychological performance. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 35, 39-46. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2010.01320.x
193. Timinkul, A., Kato, M., Omori, T., Deocaris, C. C., Ito, A., Kizuka, T., et al. (2008). Enhancing effect of cerebral blood volume by mild exercise in healthy young men: a near-infrared spectroscopy study. Neurosci. Res. 61, 242-248. doi:10.1016/j.neures.2008.03.012
194. Townshend, J. M., and Duka, T. (2005). Binge drinking, cognitive performance and mood in a population of young social drinkers. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 29, 317-325. doi:10.1097/01.ALC.0000156453.05028.F5
195. Vaidya, J. G., Block, R. I., O'Leary, D. S., Ponto, L. B., Ghoneim, M. M., and Bechara, A. (2012). Effects of chronic marijuana use on brain activity during monetary decision-making. Neuropsychopharmacology 37, 618-629. doi:10.1038/npp.2011.227
196. Varma, V. K., Basu, D., Malhotra, A., Sharma, A., and Mattoo, S. K. (1994). Correlates of early- and late-onset alcohol dependence. Addict. Behav. 19, 609-619. doi:10.1016/0306-4603(94)90016-7
197. von Knorring, A.-L., Bohman, M., von Knorring, L., and Oreland, L. (1985). Platelet MAO activity as a biological marker in subgroups of alcoholism. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 72, 51-58. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1985.tb02570.x
198. Waters, R. P., Emerson, A. J., Watt, M. J., Forster, G. L., Swallow, J. G., and Summers, C. H. (2005). Stress induces rapid changes in central catecholaminergic activity in Anolis carolinensis: restraint and forced physical activity. Brain Res. Bull. 67, 210-218. doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2005.06.029
199. Werch, C. C., Moore, M. J., DiClemente, C. C., Bledsoe, R., and Jobli, E. (2005). A multihealth behavior intervention integrating physical activity and substance use prevention for adolescents. Prev. Sci. 6, 213-226. doi:10.1007/s11121-005-0012-3
200. White, H. R., Marmorstein, N. R., Crews, F. T., Bates, M. E., Mun, E. Y., and Loeber, R. (2011). Associations between heavy drinking and changes in impulsive behavior among adolescent boys. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 35, 295-303. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2010.01345.x
201. Wilens,T. E., Martelon, M., Joshi, G., Bateman, C., Fried, R., Petty, C., et al.(2011).Does ADHD predict substance-use disorders? A 10-year follow-up study of young adults with ADHD.J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 50,543-553. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2011.01.021
202. Wilson, W., Mathew, R., Turkington, T., Hawk, T., Coleman, R. E., and Provenzale, J. (2000). Brain morphological changes and early marijuana use: a magnetic resonance and positron emission tomography study. J. Addict. Dis. 19, 1-22. doi:10.1300/J069v19n01_01
203. Winnail, S. D., Valois, R. F., McKeown, R. E., Saunders, R. P., and Pate, R. R. (1995). Relationship between physical activity level and cigarette, smokeless tobacco, and marijuana use among public high school adolescents. J. Sch. Health 65, 438-442. doi:10.1111/j.1746-1561.1995.tb08209.x
204. Xiao, L., Bechara, A., Gong, Q., Huang, X., Li, X., Xue, G., et al. (2012). Abnormal affective decision making revealed in adolescent binge drinkers using a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Psychol. Addict. Behav. doi:10.1037/a0027892. [Epub ahead of print].