Phycotoxins

Haschek and Rousseaux's Handbook of Toxicologic Pathology

Volumn , Issue , 2013, Pages 1155-1186

  Solter, Philip F ^a   Beasley, Val R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA CHAMPAIGN   (United States)

Author keywords

Blue green algae; Cyanobacteria; Dinoflagellate; Harmful algal bloom; Phycotoxin; Red tide; Seafood poisoning; Shellfish poisoning

Indexed keywords

EID: 84883978575     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-415759-0.00038-8     Document Type: Chapter

References (120)

1. Eastaugh J., Shepherd S. Infectious and toxic syndromes from fish and shellfish consumption. A review. Arch. Intern. Med. 1989, 149:1735-1740.
2. Falconer I.R. Algal Toxins in Seafood and Drinking Water 1993, Academic Press, San Diego, CA. first ed.
3. Glavin G.B., Pinsky C., Bose R. Gastrointestinal effects of contaminated mussels and putative antidotes thereof. Can. Dis. Wkly. Rep. 1990, 16(Suppl. 1E):111-115.
4. Granéli E., Sundström B., Edler L., Anderson D.M. Toxic Marine Phytoplankton: Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Toxic Marine Phytoplankton 1990, Elsevier Science Publishing Co., Inc., New York, NY.
5. James K.J., Carey B., O'Halloran J., van Pelt F.N.A.M., Škrabáková Z. Shellfish toxicity. Human health implications of marine algal toxins 2010, 138:927-940.
6. Paerl H. Nutrient and other environmental controls of harmful cyanobacterial blooms along the freshwater-marine continuum. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 2008, 619:217-237.
7. Pearson L., Mihali T., Moffitt M., Kellmann R., Neilan B. On the chemistry, toxicology and genetics of the cyanobacterial toxins, microcystin, nodularin, saxitoxin and cylindrospermopsin. Mar. Drugs 2010, 8:1650-1680.
8. Sakamoto Y., Lockey R.F., Krzanowski J.J. Shellfish and fish poisoning related to the toxic dinoflagellates. South. Med. J. 1987, 80:866-872.
9. Trevino S. Fish and shellfish poisoning. Clin. Lab. Sci. 1998, 11:309-314.
10. Twiner M.J., Fire S., Schwacke L., Davidson L., Wang Z., Morton S., Roth S., Balmer B., Rowles T.K., Wells R.S. Concurrent exposure of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) to multiple algal toxins in Sarasota Bay, Florida, USA. PLoS ONE 2011, 6:e17394.
11. van Apeldoorn M.A., van Egmond H.P., Speijers G.J.A., Bakker G.J.I. Toxins of cyanobacteria. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2007, 51:7-60.
12. Vecsei L., Dibo G., Kiss C. Neurotoxins and neurodegenerative disorders. Neurotoxicology 1998, 19:511-514.
13. Watanabe M.F., Harada K., Carmichael W.W., Fujiki H. Toxic Microcystis 1996, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. first ed.
14. Watters M.R. Organic neurotoxins in seafoods. Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg. 1995, 97:119-124.
15. Bialojan C., Takai A. Inhibitory effect of a marine-sponge toxin, okadaic acid, on protein phosphatases. Specificity and kinetics. Biochem. J. 1988, 256:283-290.
16. Botana L.M. Seafood and Freshwater Toxins: Pharmacology, Physiology, and Detection 2008, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL. second ed.
17. Fujiki H., Suganuma M., Suguri H., Yoshizawa S., Takagi K., Uda N., Wakamatsu K., Yamada K., Murata M., Yasumoto T., Sugimura T. Diarrhetic shellfish toxin, dinophysistoxin-1, is a potent tumor promoter on mouse skin. Jpn. J. Cancer Res. 1988, 79:1089-1093.
18. Fujiki H., Suganuma M., Yoshizawa S., Nishiwaki S., Winyar B., Sugimura T. Mechanisms of action of okadaic acid class tumor promoters on mouse skin. Environ. Health Perspect 1991, 93:211-214.
19. Ito E., Terao K. Injury and recovery process of intestine caused by okadaic acid and related compounds. Nat. Toxins 1994, 2:371-377.
20. Terao K., Ito E., Yanagi T., Yasumoto T. Histopathological studies on experimental marine toxin poisoning. I. Ultrastructural changes in the small intestine and liver of suckling mice induced by dinophysistoxin-1 and pectenotoxin-1. Toxicon 1986, 24:1141-1151.
21. Vale C., Botana L.M. Marine toxins and the cytoskeleton: okadaic acid and dinophysistoxins. FEBS J. 2008, 275:6060-6066.
22. Andrinolo D., Michea L.F., Lagos N. Toxic effects, pharmacokinetics and clearance of saxitoxin, a component of paralytic shellfish poison (PSP), in cats. Toxicon 1999, 37:447-464.
23. de Carvalho M., Jacinto J., Ramos N., de Oliveira V., Pinho e Melo T., de Sa J. Paralytic shellfish poisoning: clinical and electrophysiological observations. J. Neurol. 1998, 245:551-554.
24. Etheridge S.M. Paralytic shellfish poisoning: Seafood safety and human health perspectives. Toxicon 2010, 56:108-122.
25. García C., del Carmen Bravo M., Lagos M., Lagos N. Paralytic shellfish poisoning: post-mortem analysis of tissue and body fluid samples from human victims in the Patagonia fjords. Toxicon 2004, 43:149-158.
26. García C., Lagos M., Truan D., Lattes K., Véjar O., Chamorro B., Iglesias V., Andrinolo D., Lagos N. Human intoxication with paralytic shellfish toxins: Clinical parameters and toxin analysis in plasma and urine. Biol. Res. 2005, 38:197-205.
27. Gessner B.D., Middaugh J.P. Paralytic shellfish poisoning in Alaska: a 20-year retrospective analysis. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1995, 141:766-770.
28. Landsberg J.H., Hall S., Johannessen J.N., White K.D., Conrad S.M., Abbott J.P., Flewelling L.J., Richardson R.W., Dickey R.W., Jester E.L.E., Etheridge S.M., Deeds J.R., Van Dolah F.M., Leighfield T.A., Zou Y., Beaudry C.G., Benner R.A., Rogers P.L., Scott P.S., Kawabata K., Wolny J.L., Steidinger K.A. Saxitoxin puffer fish poisoning in the United States, with the first report of Pyrodinium bahamense as the putative toxin source. Environ. Health Perspect. 2006, 114:1502-1507.
29. Morse E.V. Paralytic shellfish poisoning: a review. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 1977, 171:1178-1180.
30. Negri A.P., Jones G.J., Hindmarsh M. Sheep mortality associated with paralytic shellfish poisons from the cyanobacterium. Anabaena circinalis. Toxicon 1995, 33:1321-1329.
31. Wiese M., D'Agostino P.M., Mihali T.K., Moffitt M.C., Neilan B.A. Neurotoxic alkaloids: Saxitoxin and its analogs. Mar. Drugs 2010, 8:2185-2211.
32. Bejarano A.C., Van Dola F.M., Gulland F.M., Rowles T.K., Schwacke L.H. Production and toxicity of the marine biotoxin domoic acid and its effects on wildlife: A review. Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess. 2008, 14:544-567.
33. Dakshinamurti K., Sharma S.K., Sundaram M., Watanabe T. Hippocampal changes in developing postnatal mice following intrauterine exposure to domoic acid. J. Neurosci. 1993, 13:4486-4495.
34. Iverson F., Truelove J. Toxicology and seafood toxins: domoic acid. Nat. Toxins 1994, 2:334-339.
35. Iverson F., Truelove J., Nera E., Tryphonas L., Campbell J., Lok E. Domoic acid poisoning and mussel-associated intoxication: preliminary investigations into the response of mice and rats to toxic mussel extract. Food Chem. Toxicol. 1989, 27:377-384.
36. Lefebvre K.A., Robertson A. Domoic acid and human exposure risks: A review. Toxicon 2010, 56:218-230.
37. Nijjar M.S., Madhyastha M.S. Effect of pH on domoic acid toxicity in mice. Mol. Cell. Biochem. 1997, 167:179-185.
38. Perl T.M., Bédard L., Kosatsky T., Hockin J.C., Todd E.C.D., Remis R.S. An outbreak of toxic encephalopathy caused by eating mussels contaminated with domoic acid. N. Engl. J. Med. 1990, 322:1775-1780.
39. Pulido O.M. Domoic acid toxicologic pathology: A review. Marine. Drugs 2008, 6:180-219.
40. Scholin C.A., Gulland F., Doucette G.J., Benson S., Busman M., Chavez F.P., Cordaro J., Delong R., De Vogelaere A., Harvey J., Haulena M., Lefebvre K., Lipscomb T., Loscutoff S., Lowenstine L.J., Marin R., Miller P.E., Mclellan W.A., Moeller P.D.R., Powell C.L., Rowles T., Silvagni P., Silver M., Spraker T., Trainer V., Van Dolah F.M. Mortality of sea lions along the central California coast linked to a toxic diatom bloom. Nature 2000, 403:80-84.
41. Silvagni P.A., Lowenstine L.J., Spraker T., Lipscomb T.P., Gulland F.M.D. Pathology of domoic acid toxicity in California sea lions (Zalophus californianus). Vet. Pathol. 2005, 42:184-191.
42. Strain S.M., Tasker R.A. Hippocampal damage produced by systemic injections of domoic acid in mice. Neuroscience 1991, 44:343-352.
43. Sutherland R.J., Hoesing J.M., Whishaw I.Q. Domoic acid, an environmental toxin, produces hippocampal damage and severe memory impairment. Neurosci. Lett. 1990, 120:221-223.
44. Tryphonas L., Truelove J., Todd E., Nera E., Iverson F. Experimental oral toxicity of domoic acid in cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) and rats. Preliminary investigations. Food Chem. Toxicol. 1990, 28:707-715.
45. Abraham A., Plakas S.M., Flewelling L.J., El Said K.R., Jester E.L.E., Granade H.R., White K.D., Dickey R.W. Biomarkers of neurotoxic shellfish poisoning. Toxicon 2008, 52:237-245.
46. Benson J.M., Hahn F.F., March T.H., McDonald J.D., Sopori M.L., Seagrave J., Gomez A.P., Bourdelais A.J., Naar J., Zaias J., Bossart G.D., Baden D.G. Inhalation toxicity of brevetoxin 3 in rats exposed for five days. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A. 2004, 24:1443-1456.
47. Bossart G.D., Baden D.G., Ewing R.Y., Roberts B., Wright S.D. Brevetoxicosis in manatees (Trichechus manatus latirostris) from the 1996 epizootic: gross, histologic, and immunohistochemical features. Environ. Toxicol. Pathol. 1998, 26:276-282.
48. Franz D.R., LeClaire R.D. Respiratory effects of brevetoxin and saxitoxin in awake guinea pigs. Toxicon 1989, 27:647-654.
49. Landsberg J.H., Flewelling L.J., Naar J. Karenia brevis red tides, brevetoxins in the food web, and impacts on natural resources: decadal advancements. Harmful. Algae. 2009, 8:598-607.
50. Lombet A., Bidard J.N., Lazdunski M. Ciguatoxin and brevetoxins share a common receptor site on the neuronal voltage-dependent Na+ channel. FEBS Lett. 1987, 219:355-359.
51. Naar J.P., Flewelling L.J., Lenzi A., Abbott J.P., Granholm A., Jacocks H.M., Gannon D., Henry M., Pierce R., Baden D.G., Wolny J., Landsberg J.H. Brevetoxins, like ciguatoxins, are potent ichthyotoxic neurotoxins that accumulate in fish. Toxicon 2007, 50:707-723.
52. Plakas S.M., Dikey R.W. Advances in monitoring and toxicity of brevetoxins in molluscan shellfish. Toxicon 2010, 56:137-149.
53. Caillaud A., de la Iglesia P., Darius H.T., Pauillac S., Aligizaki K., Fraga S., Chinain M., Diogène Jorge Update on methodologies available for ciguatoxin determination: perspectives to confront the onset of ciguatera fish poisoning in Europe. Mar. Drugs 2010, 8:1838-1907.
54. Cameron J., Flowers A.E., Capra M.F. Effects of ciguatoxin on nerve excitability in rats (Part I). J. Neurol. Sci. 1991, 101:87-92.
55. Cameron J., Flowers A.E., Capra M.F. Electrophysiological studies on ciguatera poisoning in man (Part II). J. Neurol. Sci. 1991, 101:93-97.
56. Cameron J., Flowers A.E., Capra M.F. Modification of the peripheral nerve disturbance in ciguatera poisoning in rats with lidocaine. Muscle. Nerve. 1993, 16:782-786.
57. Clark L., Whitwell G.B. Ciguatera poisoning in cats in Brisbane. Aust. Vet. J 1968, 44:81.
58. Dechraoui M.Y., Naar J., Pauillac S., Legrand A.M. Ciguatoxins and brevetoxins, neurotoxic polyether compounds active on sodium channels. Toxicon 1999, 37:125-143.
59. Dickey R.W., Plakas S.M. Ciguatera: A public health perspective. Toxicon 2010, 56:123-136.
60. Fasano A., Hokama Y., Russell R., Morris J.G. Diarrhea in ciguatera fish poisoning: preliminary evaluation of pathophysiological mechanisms. Gastroent 1991, 100:471-476.
61. Friedman M.A., Fleming L.E., Fernandez M., Bienfang P., Schrank K., Dickey R., Bottein M.-Y., Backer L., Ayyar R., Weisman R., Watkins S., Granade R., Reich A. Ciguatera Fish Poisoning: Treatment, Prevention and Management. Mar. Drugs 2008, 6:456-479.
62. Gillespie N.C., Lewis R.J., Pearn J.H., Bourke A.T., Holmes M.J., Bourke J.B., Shields W.J. Ciguatera in Australia. Occurrence, clinical features, pathophysiology and management. Med. J. Aust. 1986, 145:584-590.
63. Hashmi M.A., Sorokin J.J., Levine S.M. Ciguatera fish poisoning. N. Engl. J. Med. 1989, 86:469-471.
64. Hoffman P.A., Granade H.R., McMillan J.P. The mouse ciguatoxin bioassay: a dose-response curve and symptomatology analysis. Toxicon 1983, 21:363-369.
65. Ito E., Yasumoto T., Terao K. Morphological observations of diarrhea in mice caused by experimental ciguatoxicosis. Toxicon 1996, 34:111-122.
66. Lange W.R. Ciguatera fish poisoning. Am. Fam. Physician. 1994, 50:579-584.
67. Legrand A.M., Galonnier M., Bagnis R. Studies on the mode of action of ciguateric toxins. Toxicon 1982, 20:311-315.
68. Levine D.Z. Ciguatera: current concepts. J. Am. Osteopath Assoc. 1995, 95:193-198.
69. Lewis R.J., Hoy A.W. Comparative action of three major ciguatoxins on guinea-pig atria and ilea. Toxicon 1993, 31:437-446.
70. Lewis R.J., Sellin M. Recovery of ciguatoxin from fish flesh. Toxicon 1993, 31:1333-1336.
71. Lewis R.J., Hoy A.W., Sellin M. Ciguatera and mannitol: in vivo and in vitro assessment in mice. Toxicon 1993, 31:1039-1050.
72. Morris J.G., Lewin P., Hargrett N.T., Smith C.W., Blake P.A., Schneider R. Clinical features of ciguatera fish poisoning: a study of the disease in the US Virgin Islands. Arch. Intern. Med. 1982, 142:1090-1092.
73. Poli M.A., Lewis R.J., Dickey R.W., Musser S.M., Buckner C.A., Carpenter L.G. Identification of Caribbean ciguatoxins as the cause of an outbreak of fish poisoning among US soldiers in Haiti. Toxicon 1997, 35:733-741.
74. Strachan L.C., Lewis R.J., Nicholson G.M. Differential actions of Pacific ciguatoxin-1 on sodium channel subtypes in mammalian sensory neurons. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1999, 288:379-388.
75. Swift A.E., Swift T.R. Ciguatera. J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. 1993, 31:1-29.
76. Terao K., Ito E., Oarada M., Ishibashi Y., Legrand A.M., Yasumoto T. Light and electron microscopic studies of pathologic changes induced in mice by ciguatoxin poisoning. Toxicon 1991, 29:633-643.
77. Terao K., Ito E., Yasumoto T. Light and electron microscopic studies of the murine heart after repeated administrations of ciguatoxin or ciguatoxin-4c. Nat. Toxins 1992, 1:19-26.
78. Aasen J.A.B., Espenes A., Hess P., Aune T. Sub-lethal dosing of azaspiracid-1 in female NMRI mice. Toxicon 2010, 56:1419-1425.
79. Furey A., O'Doherty S., O'Callaghan K., Lehane M., James K.J. Azaspiracid poisoning (AZP) toxins in shellfish: Toxicological and health considerations. Toxicon 2010, 56:173-190.
80. Ito I., Satake M., Ofuji K., Kurita N., McMahon T., James K., Yasumoto T. Multiple organ damage caused by a new toxin azaspiracid, isolated from mussels produced in Ireland. Toxicon 2000, 38:917-930.
81. Ito I., Satake M., Ofuji K., Higashi M., Harigaya K., McMahon T., Yasumoto T. Chronic effects in mice caused by oral administration of sublethal doses of azaspiracid, a new marine toxin isolated from mussels. Toxicon 2002, 40:193-203.
82. Twiner M.J., Rehmann N., Hess P., Doucette J.G. Azaspiracid shellfish poisoning: A review on the chemistry, ecology, and toxicology with an emphasis on human health impacts. Mar. Drugs 2008, 6:39-72.
83. Bernard C., Harvey M., Briand J.F., Biré R., Krys S., Fontaine J.J. Toxicological comparison of diverse Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii strains: evidence of liver damage caused by a french C. raciborskii strain. Environ. Toxicol. 2003, 18:176-186.
84. Chernoff N., Rogers E.H., Zehr R.D., Gage M.I., Malarkey D.E., Bradfield C.A., Liu Y., Schmid J.E., Jaskot R.H., Richards J.H., Wood C.R., Rosen M.B. Toxicity and recovery in the pregnant mouse after gestational exposure to the cyanobacterial toxin, cylindrospermopsin. J. Appl. Toxicol. 2011, 31:242-254.
85. Gutiérrez-Praena D., Jos Á, Pichardo S., Moyano R., Blanco A., Monterde J.G., Cameán A.M. Time-dependent histopathological changes induced in Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) after acute exposure to pure cylindrospermopsin by oral and intraperitoneal route. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety 2012, 76:102-113.
86. Hawkins P.R., Runnegar M.T.C., Jackson A.R.B., Falconer I.R. Severe hepatotoxicity caused by the tropical cyanobacterium (blue-green alga) Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (Woloszynska) Seenaya and Subba Raju isolated from a domestic water supply reservoir. App. Environ. Microbiol. 1985, 50:1292-1295.
87. Kinnear S. Cylindrospermopsin: a decade of progress on bioaccumulation research. Mar. Drugs 2010, 8:542-564.
88. Seawright A.A., Nolan C.C., Shaw G.R., Chiswell R.K., Norris R.L., Moore M.R., Smith M.J. The oral toxicity for mice of the tropical cyanobacterium Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (Woloszynska). Environ. Toxicol. 1999, 14:135-142.
89. Shaw G.R., McKenzie R.A., Wickramasinghe W.A., Seawright A.A., Eaglesham G.K., Moore M.R. Comparative toxicity of the cyanobacterial toxin cylindrospermopsin between mice and cattle: human implications. Harmful Algae 2004, 465-467. Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Florida Institute of Oceanography, and Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, St Petersburg, FL. K.A. Steidinger, J.H. Landsberg, C.R. Tomas, G.A. Vargo (Eds.).
90. Terao K., Ohmori S., Igarashi K., Ohtani I., Watanabe M.F., Harada K.I., Ito E., Watanabe M. Electron microscopic studies on experimental poisoning in mice induced by cylindrospermopsin isolated from blue-green alga. Umezakia natans. Toxicon 1994, 33:833-843.
91. Azevedo S.M.F.O., Carmichael W.W., Jochimsen E.M., Rinehart K.L., Lau S., Shaw G.R., Eaglesham G.K. Human intoxication by microcystins during renal dialysis treatment in Caruaru - Brazil. Toxicol. 2002, 181-182:441-446.
92. Beasley V.R., Dahlem A.M., Cook W.O., Valentine W.M., Lovell R.A., Hooser S.B., Harada K., Suzuki M., Carmichael W.W. Diagnostic and clinically important aspects of cyanobacterial (blue-green algae) toxicoses. J. Vet. Diagn. Invest. 1989, 1:359-365.
93. Carmichael W.W., Eschedor J.T., Patterson G.M., Moore R.E. Toxicity and partial structure of a hepatotoxic peptide produced by the cyanobacterium Nodularia spumigena Mertens emend. L575 from New Zealand. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1988, 54:2257-2263.
94. Carmichael W.W., Azevedo S.M.F.O., An J.S., Molica R.J.R., Jochimsen E.M., Lau S., Rinehart K.L., Shaw G.R., Eaglesham G.K. Environ. Health Perspect. 2001, 109:663-668.
95. Falconer I.R., Buckley T.H. Tumour promotion by Microcystis sp., a blue-green alga occurring in water supplies. Med. J. Aust. 1989, 150:351.
96. Falconer I.R., Beresford A.M., Runnegar M.T. Evidence of liver damage by toxin from a bloom of the blue-green alga. Microcystis aeruginosa. Med. J. Aust. 1983, 1:511-514.
97. Falconer I.R., Smith J.V., Jackson A.R., Jones A., Runnegar M.T. Oral toxicity of a bloom of the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa administered to mice over periods up to 1 year. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1988, 24:291-305.
98. Falconer I.R., Dornbusch M., Moran G., Yeung S.K. Effect of the cyanobacterial (blue-green algal) toxins from Microcystis aeruginosa on isolated enterocytes from the chicken small intestine. Toxicon 1992, 30:790-793.
99. Gago-Martinez A. Hepatotoxic cyanobacteria. Phycotoxins: Chemistry and Biochemistry 2007, 251-273. Blackwell Publishing, Ames, IA. L.M. Botana (Ed.).
100. Guzman R.E., Solter P.F. Characterization of sublethal microcystin-LR exposure in mice. Vet. Pathol. 2002, 39:17-26.
101. Jochimsen E.M., Carmichael W.W., An J., Cardo D.M., Cookson S.T., Holmes C.E.M., Antunes B., de C., Filho D.A., de M., Lyra T.M., Barreto V.S.T., Azevedo S.M.F.O., Jarvis William R. Liver failure and death after exposure to microcystins at a hemodialysis center in Brazil 1998, 338:873-878.
102. Jackson A.R., McInnes A., Falconer I.R., Runnegar M.T. Clinical and pathological changes in sheep experimentally poisoned by the blue-green alga Microcystis aeruginosa. Vet. Pathol. 1984, 21:102-113.
103. Miller M.A., Kudela R.M., Mekebri A., Crane D., Oates S.C., Tinker M.T., Staedler M., Miller W.A., Toy-Choutka S., Dominik C., Hardin D., Langlois G., Murray M., Ward K., Jessup D.A. Evidence for a novel marine harmful algal bloom: cyanotoxin (microcystin) transfer from land to sea otters. Plos One 2010, 5:e12576.
104. Runnegar M.T., Jackson A.R., Falconer I.R. Toxicity of the cyanobacterium Nodularia spumigena Mertens. Toxicon 1988, 26:143-151.
105. Yuan M., Carmichael W.W., Hilborn E.D. Microcystin analysis in human sera and liver from human fatalities in Caruaru, Brazil 1996. Toxicon 2006, 48:627-640.
106. Cook W.O., Beasley V.R., Dahlem A.M., Lovell R.A., Hooser S.B., Mahmood N.B., Carmichael W.W. Consistent inhibition of peripheral cholinesterases by neurotoxins from the freshwater cyanobacterium Anabaena flos-aquae: studies of ducks, swine, mice, and a steer. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 1989, 8:915-922.
107. Cook W.O., Iwamoto G.A., Schaeffer D.J., Beasley V.R. Effect of anatoxin-a(s) from Anabaena flos-aquae NRC-525-17 on blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate, tidal volume, minute volume, and phrenic nerve activity in rats. J. Environ. Path. Toxicol. Oncol. 1989, 9:393-400.
108. Cook W.O., Iwamoto G., Schaeffer D.J., Carmichael W.W., Beasley V.R. Pathophysiologic effects of anatoxin-a(s) in anaesthetized rats: The influence of atropine and artificial respiration. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 1990, 67:151-155.
109. Cook W.O., Dahlem A.M., Harlin K.S., Beasley V.R., Hooser S.B., Haschek W.M., Carmichael W.W. Reversal of cholinesterase inhibition and clinical signs and the postmortem findings in mice after intraperitoneal injection of anatoxin-a(s), paraoxon, or pyridostigmine. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. 1991, 33:1-4.
110. Dörr F.A., Rodríguez V., Molica R., Henriksen P., Krock B., Pinto E. Methods for detection of anatoxin-a(s) by liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry. Toxicon 2010, 55:92-99.
111. James K.J., Crowley J., Duphard J., Lehane M., Furey A. Anatoxin-a and analogues: discovery, distribution and toxicology. Phycotoxins: Chemistry and Biochemistry 2007, 141-158. Blackwell Publishing, Ames, IA. L.M. Botana (Ed.).
112. Puschner B., Hof B., Tor E.R. Diagnosis of anatoxin-A toxicosis in dogs from North America. J. Vet. Diag. Invest. 2008, 20:89-92.
113. European Food Safety Authority Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain Scientific opinion on marine biotoxins in shellfish - Cyclic imines (spirolides, gymnodimines, pinnatoxins and pteriatoxins). EFSA J. 2010, 8:1628.
114. Munday R. Toxicology of cyclic imines: gymnodimine, spirolides, pinnatoxins, pteriatoxins, prorocentrolide, spiro-prorocentrimine, and symbioimines. Seafood and Freshwater Toxins: Pharmacology, Physiology, and Detection 2008, 581-594. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. second ed. L.M. Botana (Ed.).
115. Rundberget T., Aasen J.A., Selwood A.I., Miles C.O. Pinnatoxins and spirolides in Norwegian blue mussels and seawater. Toxicon 2011, 58:700-711.
116. Ito E., Satake M., Yasumoto T. Pathological effects of lyngbyatoxin A upon mice. Toxicon 2002, 40:551-556.
117. Osborne N.J.T., Webb P.M., Shaw G.R. The toxins of Lyngbya majuscula and their human and ecological health effects. Environ. Int. 2001, 27:381-392.
118. Osborne N.J., Shaw G.R., Webb P.M. Health effects of recreational exposure to Moreton Bay Australia waters during a Lyngbya majuscula bloom. Environ. Int. 2007, 33:309-314.
119. Werner K.A., Marquart L., Norton S.A. Lynbya dermatitis (toxic seaweed dermatitis). Intl. J. Dermatol. 2012, 51:59-62.
120. Okle, et al. L-BMAA Induced ER Stress and Enhanced Caspase 12 Cleavage in Human Neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y Cells at Low Nonexcitotoxic Concentrations. Toxicol. Sci. 2013, 131:217-224.