Our underachieving colleges: A candid look at how much students learn and why they should be learning more

Our Underachieving Colleges: A Candid Look at How Much Students Learn and Why They Should Be Learning More

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages

  Bok, Derek ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84883936358     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Book

References (420)

1. National Commission on Excellence in Education, A Nation at Risk: The Imperative of Education Reform (1983).
2. William J. Bennett, To Reclaim a Legacy: A Report on the Humanities in Higher Education (1984); Lynne Cheney, Tyrannical Machines: A Report on Educational Practices Gone Wrong and Our Best Hopes of Setting Them Right (1990). Both reports were issued while the authors were serving as head of the National Endowment for the Humanities.
3. Dinesh D'Souza, Illiberal Education: The Politics of Race and Sex on Campus (1991); Charles Sykes, Profscam (1988).
4. The subtitles of many of the books reveal even more clearly the prevailing tone of the authors: Allan Bloom, The Closing of the American Mind: How Higher Education Has Failed Democracy and Impoverished the Souls of Today's Students (1987); Bill Readings, The University in Ruins (1996); Bruce Wilshire, The Moral Collapse of the University: Professionalism, Purity, and Alienation (1990); Roger Kimball, Tenured Radicals: How Politics Has Corrupted Higher Education (1990); Peter Shaw, The War against the Intellect: Episodes in the Decline of Discourse (1989); Martin Anderson, Impostors in the Temple: American Intellectuals Are Destroying Our Universities and Cheating Our Students of Their Future (1992); Page Smith, Killing the Spirit: Higher Education in America (1990).
5. Allan Bloom, The Closing of the American Mind, p. 337. See also Jerry G. Gaff, General Education Today: A Critical Analysis of Controversies, Practices, and Reforms (1983), p. 187; Stanley N. Katz, "Liberal Education on the Ropes," 51 Chronicle of Higher Education (April 1, 2005), p. B6.
6. Bill Readings, The University in Ruins (1996), p. 10.
7. The quoted words appear at p. xxiv of Wilshire's book. See also Allan Bloom, The Closing of the American Mind; Thomas E. Boudreau, Universities: The Social Restructuring of American Undergraduate Education (1998). 361
8. See, for example, Allan Bloom, The Closing of the American Mind; Peter Shaw, The War against the Intellect; Jacques Barzun, The Culture We Deserve: A Critique of Disenlightenment (1989).
9. Quoted by Richard H. Hersh, "The Liberal Arts College: The Most Practical and Professional Education for the Twenty- First Century," Liberal Education (Summer 1997), pp. 27, 28.
10. Eric Gould, The University in a Corporate Culture (2003), p. 197.
11. For a slightly less harsh elaboration of the same points covered by Sykes in Profscam, see Page Smith, Killing the Spirit.
12. See Thomas L. Friedman, "It's a Flat World after All," New York Times Magazine (April 3, 2005), p. 32.
13. This phenomenon is not unprecedented. In 1905, Calvin Thomas noted that, "Notwithstanding all the attacks that are made upon college, notwithstanding all the satiric questionings of its utility, its popularity steadily increases. Men decry it, crack jokes about it, and-send their sons to college." "The New Program of Studies at Columbia College," 29 Educational Review (1905), p. 335.
14. See Alexander W. Astin, What Matters in College? Four Critical Years Revisited (1993), p. 276; Philip G. Altbach, Patricia J. Gumport, and D. Bruce Johnstone, In Defense of Higher Education (2001), p. 282. Astin's study, which will be cited often in the chapters that follow, is a massive survey of more than 24,000 students at a wide variety of colleges from their entry as freshmen in 1985 until they graduated in or before 1991. The author based his work on students' impressions about their college careers as well as the results of objective tests taken before the students arrived on campus (e.g., SATs and ACTs) and when they were seniors (e.g., Graduate Record Exams, Law School Admissions Tests). In conducting his study, Astin utilized 131 characteristics of entering freshmen, 192 environmental variables (relating to, e.g., nature and size of institution, student body, and faculty), and 82 outcome measures ranging from cognitive factors to attitudes, values, and beliefs.
15. Alexander W. Astin, What Matters in College?, p. 275, reporting that 77.3 percent of seniors were satisfied or very satisfied with "opportunities to discuss course work and assignments out of class with professors," while 62.7 percent were satisfied or very satisfied with the amount of contact with faculty and administrators.
16. See William G. Bowen and Derek Bok, The Shape of the River: Long-Term Consequences of Considering Race in College and University Admissions (1998), pp. 194-208.
17. For a detailed account of the multitude of studies that document these conclusions, see Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini, How College Affects Students: Findings and Insights from Twenty Years of Research (1991) and, by the same authors, How College Affects Students, Vol. 2: A Third Decade of Research (2005). In these works, the authors have reviewed several thousand studies conducted from 1969 to 2005. In drawing conclusions from this body of research, the authors take careful account of the strengths and weaknesses of the methods used by the investigators. Their books summarize the results of research for a wide variety of outcomes, including cognitive skills, verbal and quantitative competence, and psychosocial changes in attitudes and values. Pascarella and Terenzini have compiled the most current comprehensive analysis of existing research on the impact of college, and their books will be cited repeatedly in the chapters that follow.
18. The classic study of the evolution of college curricula in America is Frederick Rudolph, Curriculum: A History of the American Course of Study since 1636 (1977); the most complete study of American universities from the nineteenth century to the 1920s is Laurence Veysey, The Emergence of the American University (1965; First Phoenix Edition, 1970); another, more concise, his- tory is Christopher J. Lucas, American Higher Education: A History (1994); still another historical account is Arthur M. Cohen, The Shaping of American Higher Education: Emergence and Growth of the Contemporary System (1998).
19. Laurence Veysey, The Emergence of the American University, pp. 33-34.
20. Frederick Rudolph, Curriculum, points out at p. 95 that "the central institution of extracurricular life [in the early nineteenth century] was the literary society; the debater, the orator, the essayist were the heroes of the extracurriculum."
21. "Original Papers in Relation to a Course of Liberal Education," 15 American Journal of Science and Arts (1829).
22. Calvin B. Hulbert, The Distinctive Idea in Education (1890), p. 11. (Hulbert served as president of Middlebury College.)
23. Frederick Rudolph, Curriculum, p. 107.
24. Laurence Veysey, The Emergence of the American University, p. 113.
25. Frederick Rudolph, Curriculum, p. 120.
26. W. B. Carnochan, The Battleground of the Curriculum: Liberal Education and the American Experience (1993), p. 20.
27. Frederick Rudolph, Curriculum, p. 196.
28. Idem, p. 227. As Rudolph points out at p. 209, "Electives drew to the course of study young men and women for whom the classical tradition held no attraction, but they also made possible a growing number of marginally motivated students who majored in the extracurriculum while attending or not attending, as it might be, courses sufficiently undemanding not to interfere with their priorities."
29. LeBaron Briggs, Routine and Ideals (1904), p. 202.
30. Page Smith, Killing the Spirit: Higher Education in America (1990), p. 73.
31. Kai Bird, The Color of Truth: McGeorge Bundy and William Bundy: Brothers in Arms (1998), p. 58. William Prox- mire, reflecting on pre-war Yale, reported that "most of my classmates were wholly preoccupied with sports and girls, and grades, and bull sessions about sports and girls and grades-in that order." Diana Dubois (ed.), My Harvard, My Yale (1982), p. 187.
32. Interview with Geoffrey Kabaservice, June 22, 1997, noted in Kabaservice, The Guardians: Kingman Brewster, His Circle, and the Rise of the Liberal Establishment (2004), pp. 62-63.
33. Nevitt Sanford (ed.), The American College: A Psychological and Social Interpretation of the Higher Learning (1962), p. 13. See also Philip E. Jacob, Changing Values in College (1957).
34. Philip E. Jacob, Changing Values in College, p. 4.
35. Quoted by Laurence Veysey, The Emergence of the American University, p. 107.
36. Abraham Flexner, The American College: A Criticism (1908), p. 7.
37. Bruce A. Kimball, Orators and Philosophers: A History of the Idea of Liberal Education (1986), p. 196.
38. Robert M. Hutchins, The Higher Learning in America (1936; Transaction Press Edition, 1995), p. 60.
39. Frederick Rudolph, Curriculum, p. 288.
40. Laurence Veysey, "Stability and Experience in the American Undergraduate Curriculum," in Carl Kaysen (ed.), Content and Context: Essays on College Education (1973), pp. 1, 58-59. According to Veysey, the principal animating themes have been utility (vocationalism and other practical pursuits), culture (emphasizing the humanities and British traditions of educating "gentlemen"), and scholarship (borrowing from German traditions of research and scholarly investigation).
41. "The Ph.D. Octopus" (1903), Memories and Studies (1911), p. 329.
42. Julie A. Reuben, The Making of the Modern University: Intellectual Transformation and the Marginalization of Morality (1996), pp. 176-78.
43. Rexford G. Tugwell, "Experimental Economics," in Tugwell (ed.), The Trend of Economics (1924), p. 394.
44. Steven Brint, Mark Riddle, Lori Turk-Bicalei, and Charles S. Levy, "From the Liberal Arts to the Practical Arts in American Colleges and Universities," 76 The Journal of Higher Education (2005), p. 151.
45. Frederick Rudolph, Curriculum, p. 117.
46. Christopher Jencks and David Riesman, The Academic Revolution (1968), p. 199.
47. John Henry Cardinal Newman, The Idea of a University (1852). Even in 1852, when Newman's famous book appeared, British universities had long been preparing students for professions such as the ministry, law, and medicine.
48. For an example of the tendency to write as if vocational courses had largely replaced courses in the humanities and other liberal arts subjects, see James Engell and Anthony Dangerfield, "The Market-Model University: Humanities in the Age of Money," Harvard Magazine (May-June 1998), p. 48.
49. Charles Sykes, Profscam (1988), p. 53.
50. Hugh Hawkins, Between Harvard and America (1972), p. 274.
51. Robert C. Angell, The Campus: A Study of Contemporary Undergraduate Life in the American University (1928), p. 36.
52. Much the same is true of Sykes's claim about the faculty's lack of contact with undergraduates. As Laurence Veysey observes, "Between undergraduates and their professors at the end of the nineteenth century, a gulf yawned so deep that it could appropriately be called 'the awful chasm'"; The Emergence of the American University, p. 294.
53. Interestingly, one of the critics, Page Smith, a historian, does not make such a claim. He shows, on the contrary, that most problems of contemporary undergraduate education have deep roots; The Killing of the Spirit: Higher Education in America (1990).
54. Carolyn J. Mooney, "New U.S. Survey Assembles Statistical Portrait of the American Professoriate," 36 Chronicle of Higher Education (February 7, 1990), pp. A-15, A-18.
55. Ernest L. Boyer, Scholarship Reconsidered: Priorities of the Professoriate (1990), Table A-26; see generally Lionel S. Lewis, Marginal Worth: Teaching and the Academic Labor Market (1996), pp. 27-33, 147-57.
56. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Educational Statistics, Background Characteristics, Work Activities, and Compensation of Faculty and Instructional Staff in Postsecondary Institutions: Fall, 1998 (April 2001), pp. 46 et seq.
57. Linda J. Sax, Alexander W. Astin, William S. Korn, and Shannon K. Gilmartin, The American College Teacher: National Norms for the 1989-1999 HERI Faculty Survey (1999), p. 17.
58. Alexander W. Astin, What Matters in College: Four Critical Years Revisited (1993), p. 275.
59. Joan S. Stark and Lisa R. Latucca, Shaping the College Curriculum: Academic Plans in Action (1999), p. 215.
60. G. Jeffrey McDonald, "Search for Meaning on Campus," Boston Globe (June 12, 2005), p. A29.
61. Association of American Colleges, Liberal Learning and the Arts and Sciences Major, Vol. 2: Reports from the Field (1991), p. 13. In 1995, the Association of American Colleges was renamed the Association of American Colleges and Universities.
62. Association of American Colleges, Integrity in the College Curriculum: A Report to the Academic Community (1985), p. 2.
63. See, for example, John McLeish, The Lecture Method (1968); Lion Gardiner, Redesigning Higher Education: Producing Dramatic Gains in Student Learning (1994), p. 46.
64. See, for example, L. Meiskey, A. Healy, and L. Bourne, "Memory for Classroom Algebra," 2 On Teaching and Learning (1990), p. 57; Martin A. Conway, Gillian Cohen, and Nicola Stanhope, "On the Very Long-Term Retention of Knowledge Acquired through Formal Education: Twelve Years of Cognitive Psychology," 120 Journal of Experimental Psychology: General (1991), p. 395.
65. See, for example, Lion Gardiner, Redesigning Higher Education.
66. Joan S. Stark, Malcolm A. Lowther, Michael P. Ryan, and Michele Genthon, "Faculty Reflect on Course Planning," 29 Research in Higher Education (1988), p. 219. In a later work, Professor Stark observed: "Generally, faculty members did not include knowledge of learning theory or pedagogical training among the types of scholarly preparation that strongly influenced their course planning. Only 30% of the college instructors we talked with had any exposure to various educational and psychological theories through formal courses or workshops that might have created awareness of alternative planning strategies." Joan S. Stark and Lisa R. Latucca, Shaping the College Curriculum, p. 117.
67. See, for example, Michael Moffatt, Coming of Age in New Jersey: College and American Culture (1988). More generally, see George D. Kuh, "The Other Curriculum: Out-of-Class Experiences Associated with Student Learning and Personal Development," 66 The Journal of Higher Education (1995), p. 123.
68. Richard J. Light, Making the Most of College: Students Speak Their Minds (2001), p. 8. Unlike regular classes, more- over, these extracurricular experiences and chance encounters cannot be programmed through television or the Internet. Ironically, therefore, although they are neglected by the faculty, they offer the strongest reason why pundits are wrong when they claim that modern technology has made the traditional residential college a costly relic that will eventually go the way of the dinosaur.
69. According to Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini, "the research published since 1990 indicates that students' in- and out-of-class experiences are interconnected components of a complex process shaping student change and development in ways we are only beginning to understand." How College Affects Students, Vol. 2: A Third Decade of Research (2005), p. 629.
70. Allan Bloom, The Closing of the American Mind: How Higher Education Has Failed Democracy and Impoverished the Souls of Today's Students (1987), p. 338; William J. Bennett, To Reclaim a Legacy: A Report on the Humanities in Higher Education (1984); Lynne V. Cheney, 50 Hours: A Core Curriculum for College Students (1989).
71. W. B. Carnochan. The Battleground of the Curriculum: Liberal Education and American Experience (1993), p. 126.
72. Bruce Wilshire. The Moral Collapse of the University: Professionalism, Purity, and Alienation (1990), p. 24.
73. Charles Anderson. Prescribing the Life of the Mind: An Essay on the Aims of Liberal Education, the Competence of Citizens, and the Cultivation of Practical Reason (1993), p. 4.
74. Bill Readings. The University in Ruins (1996), p. 6.
75. Stanley Fish, "Aim Low," 49 Chronicle of Higher Education (May 16, 2003), p. C5.
76. Norman Nie, Jane Junn, and Kenneth Stehlik-Barry. Education and Democratic Citizenship in America (1996).
77. Alexander W. Astin and Linda J. Sax, "How Undergraduates Are Affected by Service Participation," 39 Journal of College Student Development (1998), p. 259.
78. Patricia Gurin, Eric L. Dey, Sylvia Hurtado, and Gerald Gurin, "Diversity and Higher Education," 72 Harvard Educational Review (2002), p. 330.
79. Frank Lentricchia. Criticism and Social Change (1983), p. 2.
80. Frederic Jameson, "Marxism and Teaching," 2/3 New Political Science (1979/1980), pp. 31, 32.
81. Darryl J. Glass and Barbara H. Smith (eds.). The Politics of Liberal Education (1992), pp. 128, 135.
82. Henry A. Giroux and Kostas Myrsiades (eds.). Beyond the Corporate University (2001), p. 40.
83. James A. Berlin. Rhetoric, Poetics, and Cultures: Refiguring College English Studies (1996).
84. Sharon Crowley. Composition in the University: Historical and Polemical Essays (1998), pp. 64-72
85. Mary Trachsel,. Institutionalizing Literacy (1992). 20.
86. Lion F. Gardiner. Redesigning Higher Education: Pro- ucing Dramatic Gains in Student Learning (1994), p. 2.
87. Linda J. Sax, Alexander W. Astin, William S. Korn, and Shannon K. Gilmartin. The American College Teacher: National Norms for the 1989-1999 HERI Faculty Survey (1999), p. 36.
88. John E. McPeck. Critical Thinking and Education (1981); also Edward Thorndike, Principles of Teaching (1906), p. 246.
89. Gavriel Salomon and David N. Perkins. "Rocky Roads to Transfer: Rethinking Mechanisms of a Neglected Phenomenon," 24 Educational Psychologist (1989), p. 113.
90. Darrin R. Lehman and Richard E. Nisbett, "A Longitudinal Study of the Effects of Undergraduate Training on Reasoning," 26 Developmental Psychology (1990), p. 952.
91. Wilbert J. McKeachie, Paul Patrick, Y. Guang Lin, and David A. F. Smith. Teaching and Learning in the College Classroom: A Review of the Research Literature (1986), p. 35;
92. Richard E. Nisbett, Geoffrey T. Fong, Darrin R. Lehman, and Patricia W. Cheng, "Teaching Reasoning," 238 Science (1987), p. 625.
93. William A. Galston, "Political Knowledge, Political Engagement, and Civic Education," 4 Annual Review of Political Science (2001), pp. 217-19.
94. Warren E. Miller and J. Merrill Shanks. The New American Voter (1996).
95. Martin Luther King Jr.. Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community? (1968), p. 167.
96. John D. Bransford, Ann L. Brown, and Rodney R. Cocking (eds.). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School (1999), p. 5.
97. Aristotle. Politics (Jowett translation, Book 8, Section 2) (1905), p. 301.
98. William D. Schaefer. Education without Compromise: From Chaos to Coherence in Higher Education (1990), p. 126.
99. Robert Paul Wolff. The Ideal of the University (1969), p. 20.
100. Richard J. Light. Making the Most of College: Students Speak Their Minds (2001), p. 54.
101. Charles F. Adams, Edwin L. Godkin, and Josiah Quincy, "Report of the Committee on Composition and Rhetoric," in Reports of Visiting Committees of the Board of Overrs (1897), pp. 401, 410.
102. "Statement of Principles and Standards for Post-Secondary Teaching and Writing," 40 College Composition and Communication (1989), p. 329.
103. Sheryl I. Fontaine and Susan Hunter. Writing Ourselves into the Story: Unheard Voices from Composition Studies (1993), p. 281.
104. Gary A. Olson and Joseph M. Moxley. "Directing Freshman Composition: The Limits of Authority," 40 College Composition and Communication (1989), p. 51.
105. Joseph Harris, "Meet the New Boss. Same as the Old Boss: Class Consciousness in Composition," 52 College Composition and Communication (2000), pp. 43, 57.
106. Alexander W. Astin. What Matters in College: Four Critical Years Revisited (1993), p. 130.
107. David R. Russell. Writing in the Academic Disciplines, 1870-1990 (1991).
108. Edward M. White. Developing Successful College Writing Programs (1989), p. 33.
109. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini. How College Affects Students, Vol. 2: A Third Decade of Research (2005), pp. 156, 573.
110. Joe M. Steele, "Assessing Reasoning and Communication Skills of Postsecondary Students," paper presented at the meeting of the American Education Research Association, San Francisco (1986).
111. Dean Whitla. Value Added: Measuring the Impact of Undergraduate Education, study completed for the Office of Instructional Research and Evaluation, Harvard University (1978).
112. William G. Bowen and Derek Bok. The Shape of the River: Long-Term Consequences of Considering Race in College and University Admissions (1998), p. 212.
113. Alexander W. Astin. What Matters in College, p. 223.
114. Ann R. Gere, "Empirical Research in Composition," in Ben W. McClelland and Timothy R. Donovan (eds.), Perspectives on Research and Scholarship in Composition (1985), p. 110.
115. James A. Berlin. Rhetoric and Reality: Writing Instruction in American Colleges, 1900-1985 (1987).
116. George Hillocks Jr.. Research on Written Composition, p. 225.
117. Marilyn Sternglass. Time to Know Them: A Longitudinal Study of Writing and Learning at the College Level (1997), p. 295.
118. Mina Shaughnessy. Errors and Expectations: A Guide for the Teaching of Basic Writing (1977), pp. 284, 292.
119. Donald M. Murray. "Teach Writing as a Process, Not Product," The Leaflet (November 1972), p. 11. This essay is reprinted in Richard L. Graves (ed.), Rhetoric and Composition: A Sourcebook for Teachers (1976), p. 79.
120. W. Ross Winterowd. A Teacher's Introduction to Composition in the Rhetorical Tradition (1994), p. 100.
121. Alan W. France. Composition as a Cultural Practice (1994), p. 2.
122. Ray Wallace and Susan L. Wallace, "Readerless Writers: College Composition's Misreading and Misteaching of Entering Students," in Ray Wallace, Alan Jackson, and Susan L. Wallace, Reforming College Composition: Writing the Wrongs (2000), pp. 92, 93.
123. Barbara Leigh Smith, "Writing across the Curriculum: What's at Stake," 3 Current Issues in Higher Education, 1983-84 (1984), p. 1.
124. Alan Jackson, "Cognition and Culture," in Ray Wallace, Alan Jackson, and Susan L. Wallace, Reforming College Composition, p. 249.
125. Edward M. White. Developing Successful College Writing Programs, p. 164.
126. Niccolo Machiavelli. The Prince (1515), translation by Peter Bondanella (2005).
127. Thomas Sheridan. A Case for Lectures in Elocution: Together with Two Dissertations on Language; and Some Other Treats Relative to Those Subjects (1762), pp. ii, 1.
128. Brian H. Spitzberg and William R. Cupach. Interpersonal Communication Competence (1984), p. 187.
129. June H. Smith and Patricia H. Turner, "A Survey of Communication Department Curriculum in Four-Year Colleges and Universities," 1 JACA (1993), pp. 34, 40.
130. Ellen L. Vinson. "General Education and Enrollment Trends at Private Baccalaureate Colleges, 1975-2000" (Ph.D. dissertation, College of William and Mary, March 2002), p. 97.
131. Sherwyn P. Morreale and Philip M. Backlund. "Communication Curricula: History, Recommendations, Resources," 51 Communication Education (2002), p. 2.
132. John T. Morello, "Comparing Speaking across the Curriculum and Writing across the Curriculum Programs," 49 Communication Education (2000), pp. 99, 101-2.
133. Gustav W. Friedrich, "Speech Communication Education in American Colleges and Universities," in Thomas W. Benson (ed.), Speech Communication in the 20th Century (1985), pp. 235, 248.
134. Joe M. Steele, "Assessing Reasoning and Communication Skills of Postsecondary Students." More generally, Ronald E. Bassett and Mary E. Boone, "Improving Speech Communication Skills: An Overview of the Literature," in Rebecca B. Rubin (ed.), Improving Speaking and Listening Skills (1983), p. 83.
135. Alexander W. Astin. What Matters in College, p. 223; Alexander W. Astin, Jennifer R. Kemp, and Jennifer A. Lindholm, "A Decade of Change in Undergraduate Education: A National Study of System 'Transformation,'" 25 The Review of Higher Education (2002), pp. 141, 152.
136. Wall Street Journal, "Work Week" (December 29, 1998), p. A-1. also Stephen C. Harper, "Business Education: A View from the Top," 12 Business Forum (1987), p. 24.
137. Bruskin Associates, "What Are Americans Afraid Of?" The Bruskin Report (1973), No. 53.
138. Alison Schneider, "Taking Aim at Student Incoherence," 45 Chronicle of Higher Education (March 26, 1999), p. A-16.
139. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini. How College Affects Students: Findings and Insights from Twenty Years of Research (1991), p. 155.
140. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini. How College Affects Students, Vol. 2: A Third Decade of Research (2005), p. 205.
141. Alexander W. Astin. What Matters in College: Four Critical Years Revisited (1993), p. 223.
142. William G. Bowen and Derek Bok. The Shape of the River: Long-Term Consequences of Considering Race in College and University Admissions (1998), p. 212.
143. Chau-kiu Cheung, Elisabeth Rudowicz, Anna S. Kwan, and Xiau Dong Yue. "Assessing University Students' General and Specific Critical Thinking," 36 College Student Journal (2002), p. 504.
144. Ernest Pascarella and Patrick Terenzini. conclude that the level of effort and involvement in academic work has important effects on the growth of critical thinking; How College Affects Students, Vol. 2, p. 208.
145. George D. Kuh, "What We're Learning about Student Engagement from NSSE: Benchmarks for Effective Educational Practices," Change (March-April 2003), pp. 24, 27.
146. George D. Kuh, Shouping Hu, and Nick Vesper, "They Shall Be Known by What They Do: An Activities-Based Typology of College Students," 41 Journal of College Student Development (2000), pp. 228, 241.
147. Alexander W. Astin, Jennifer Kemp, and Jennifer A. Lindholm, "A Decade of Change in Undergraduate Education: A Na- tional Study of System 'Transformation,'" 25 The Review of Higher Education (2002), p. 141.
148. Arthur Levine and Jeannette S. Cureton, "What We Know about Today's College Students," About Campus (March-April 1998), pp. 4, 7.
149. Patricia M. King and Karen S. Kitchener. Developing Reflective Judgment: Understanding and Promoting Intellectual Growth and Critical Thinking in Adolescents and Adults (1994).
150. Robert A. Mines, Patricia M. King, Albert B. Hood. and Phillip K. Wood, "Stages of Intellectual Development and Associated Critical Thinking Skills in College Students," 31 Journal of College Student Development (1990), p. 538.
151. Kitchener and King. Developing Reflective Judgment, pp. 165-69.
152. Lion F. Gardiner. Redesigning Undergraduate Education: Producing Dramatic Gains in Student Learning (1994), p. 10.
153. Ibrahim A. Halloun and David Hestenes, "The Initial Knowledge State of College Physics Students," and "Common Sense Concepts about Motion," both published in 53 American Journal of Physics (1985), pp. 1043 and 1056.
154. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini. How College Affects Students, Vol. 2, p. 205.
155. Wilbert J. McKeachie, Paul Patrick, Y. Guang Lin, and David A. Smith. Teaching and Learning in the College Classroom: A Review of the Research Literature (1986), p. 69.
156. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini. How College Affects Students, Vol. 2, p. 104.
157. Mary E. Huba and Jann E. Freed. Learner-Centered Assessment on College Campuses: Shifting the Focus from Teaching to Learning (2000), p. 219.
158. John D. Bransford, Ann L. Brown. and Rodney Cocking (eds.), How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School (1999), p. 55.
159. Paul J. Black and Dylan Williams, "Assessment and Classroom Learning," 5 Assessment and Education (1998), p. 7. Researchers established long ago that proper feedback improves learning; Ellis B. Page, "Teacher Comments and Student Performance: A Seventy-Four Classroom Experiment in School Motivation," 49 Journal of Educational Psychology (1958), p. 173.
160. Robert T. Blackburn, Glen R. Pollino, Alice Boberg, and Colman O'Connell, "Are Instructional Improvement Programs off Target," 2 Current Issues in Higher Education (1980), p. 32.
161. Arthur Chickering and Zelda F. Gamson also estimate that teachers in the average college classroom lecture 80 percent of the time; Applying the Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education (1991), p. 1.
162. Karron G. Lewis and Paul Woodward, "What Really Happens in Large University Classes?" paper given at the American Educational Research Association annual conference, New Orleans, 1984.
163. Richard Panek, "101 Redefined: Colleges Rethink the Large Lecture Course," New York Times, Education Life (January 16, 2005), p. 32.
164. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini. How College Affects Students, Vol. 2, p. 101.
165. Norman Frederiksen, "The Real Test Bias: Influences of Testing on Teaching and Learning," 39 American Psychologist (1984), p. 193.
166. Grant Wiggins. Educative Assessment: Designing Assessment to Inform and Improve Student Performance (1998).
167. John M. Braxton, "Selectivity and Rigor in Research Universities," 64 The Journal of Higher Education (1993), p. 657.
168. Ohmer Milton. Will That Be on the Final? (1982).
169. Linda J. Sax, Alexander W. Astin, William S. Korn, and Shannon K. Gilmartin. The American College Teacher: National Norms for the 1989-1999 HERI Faculty Survey (1999), p. 36.
170. Karl Jaspers. The Idea of the University (1959), p. 57.
171. John McLeish. The Lecture Method (1968), p. 10; also Lion F. Gardiner, Redesigning Higher Education (1994), pp. 46-50.
172. Norman J. Slemecka and Peter Graf, "The Generation Effect: Delineation of a Phenomenon," 4 Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory (1978), p. 592.
173. Deborah Stipek. Motivation to Learn: From Theory to Practice (3d Ed., 1998), p. 165.
174. David A. Garvin. How Professional Schools Teach Professional Skills: The Case Method in Action (2003).
175. Michael M. Lewis. Moneyball: The Art of Winning an Unfair Game (2003).
176. Lynn A. Steen (ed.). Mathematics and Democracy: The Case for Quantitative Literacy (2001), pp. 16-17.
177. Deborah Hughes-Hallett, "The Role of Mathematics Courses in the Development of Quantitative Literacy," in Bernard L. Madison and Lynn A. Steen (eds.), Quantitative Literacy: Why Numeracy Matters for Schools and Colleges (2003), p. 91.
178. William H. Schmidt, Curtis C. McKnight, Leland S. Logan, Pamela M. Jakwerth, and Richard T. Houang. Facing the Consequences: Using TIMSS for a Clear Look at U.S. Mathematics and Science Education (1999), p. 226; Pascal D. Forgione, U.S. Commissioner of Education Statistics, Questions and Answers: 12th Grade TIMMS Results (1995), http://www.col_ed.org/ smenws/tim55/12th.html.
179. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini. How College Affects Students (1993), pp. 70, 569. For all undergraduates, quantitative skills are thought to rise by approximately one-half of a standard deviation (or about 19 percentile points), a gain roughly equal to the estimated gain in critical thinking and one-half of the estimated gain in reflective judgment (i.e., reasoning about illstructured problems); Pascarella and Terenzini, How College Affects Students, Vol. 2, p. 574.
180. Bernard L. Madison, "Articulation and Quantitative Literacy," in Bernard L. Madison and Lynn A. Steen, Quantitative Literacy: Why Numeracy Matters (2003), pp. 153, 162.
181. Uri Treisman, "Studying Students Studying Calculus: A Look at the Lives of Minority Mathematics Students in College," The College Mathematics Journal (1992), p. 362.
182. Sheila Tobias.Revitalizing Undergraduate Science: Why Some Things Work and Most Don't (1992), p. 114.
183. Catherine H. Crouch and Eric Mazur, "Peer Instruction: Ten Years of Experience and Results," 69 American Journal of Physics (2001), p. 970.
184. Karen Schilling. Assessing Models of Liberal Education: An Empirical Comparison (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 359 864) (1991); Sheila Wright, "Fostering Intellectual Development of Students in Professional Schools through Interdisciplinary Coursework," 16 Innovative Higher Education (1992), p. 251.
185. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini. How College Affects Students, pp. 65-66, 614.
186. Alexander W. Astin. What Matters in College, pp. 236-41, 302-10, 370-72.
187. Pascarella and Terenzini. How College Affects Students, p. 619.
188. David Brooks, "'Moral Suicide,' à la Wolfe," New York Times (November 16, 2004), p. A27.
189. Daniel Callahan and Sissela Bok (eds.). Ethics Teaching in Higher Education (1980), especially Douglas Sloan, "The Teaching of Ethics in the American Undergraduate Curriculum, 1976-1996," p. 1.
190. Donald L. McCabe and Linda K. Trevino, "Honor Codes and Other Contextual Influences," 64 The Journal of Higher Education (1993), p. 522; studies cited in Margaret P. Jendrek, "Faculty Reactions to Academic Dishonesty," 30 Journal of College Student Development (1989), p. 401.
191. Donald L. McCabe, Linda K. Trevino, and Kenneth D. Butterfield, "Cheating in Academic Institutions: A Decade of Research," 11 Ethics and Behavior (2001), pp. 219, 223; Gary Pavela, "Applying the Power of Association on Campus: A Model Code of Academic Integrity," 9 Synthesis: Law and Policy in Higher Education (1997), p. 637.
192. David Callahan. The Cheating Culture: Why More Americans Are Doing Wrong to Get Ahead (2004), pp. 20-24.
193. Tammy Joyner, "Corporate Crime Not Limited to Bigwigs," Atlanta Journal-Constitution (August 6, 2002), p. A1.
194. Alan Wolfe. Moral Freedom: The Impossible Idea That Defines the Way We Live Now (2001), p. 195.
195. Howard R. Bowen. Investment in Learning: The Individual and Social Value of American Higher Education (1977), p. 220.
196. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini. How College Affects Students: Findings and Insights from Twenty Years of Research (1991), p. 366.
197. Andre Schlaefli, James R. Rest, and Stephen J. Thoma, "Does Moral Education Improve Moral Judgment?: A Meta- Analysis of Intervention Studies Using the Defining Issues Test," 55 Review of Educational Research (1985), p. 319.
198. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini, How College Affects Students,Vol. 2, p. 348.
199. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini. How College Affects Students, Vol. 2, p. 359.
200. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini. How College Affects Students, p. 357.
201. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini. How College Affects Students, Vol. 2, pp. 354-55.
202. G. Blakemore Evans. The Riverside Shakespeare (1974), p. 256.
203. Alan L. Otten. "Politics and People," Wall Street Journal (April 11, 1974), p. 12.
204. Wendy Fischman, Becca Solomon, Deborah Greenspan, and Howard Gardner. Making Good: How Young People Cope with Moral Dilemmas at Work (2004), p. 161.
205. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini. How College Affects Students, p. 363
206. James R. Rest and Darcia Narváez, "Summary: What's Possible," in James R. Rest and Darcia Narváez, Moral Development and the Professions: Psychology and Applied Ethics (1994), p. 213.
207. Martin Hoffman. Empathy and Moral Development: Implications for Caring and Justice (2000); for a thoughtful, more popular, treatment, Alfie Kohn, The Brighter Side of Human Nature: Altruism and Empathy in Everyday Life (1990).
208. Donald L. McCabe, Linda K. Trevino, and Kenneth D. Butterfield, "Academic Integrity in Honor Code and Non-Honor Code Environments: A Qualitative Investigation," 70 The Journal of Higher Education (1999), p. 211.
209. Donald L. McCabe, "Faculty Responses to Academic Dishonesty: The Influence of Student Honor Codes," 34 Research in Higher Education (1993), p. 647.
210. Margaret P. Jendrek, "Faculty Reactions to Academic Dishonesty," Journal of College Student Development (1989), p. 401.
211. Gary Pavela, "Donald McCabe on 'Faculty Attitudes toward Academic Integrity,'" 9 Synthesis: Law and Policy in Higher Education (1997), pp. 637, 642.
212. Sissela Bok. Mayhem: Violence as Public Entertainment (1998), p. 70.
213. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini. How College Affects Students, Vol. 2, p. 369.
214. Judith A. Boss, "The Effect of Community Service Work on the Moral Development of College Ethics Students," 23 Journal of Moral Education (1994), p. 183.
215. Alexander W. Astin, "Involvement in Learning Revisited: Lessons We Have Learned," 37 Journal of College Student Development (1996), pp. 123, 129.
216. Janet Eyler and Dwight E. Giles Jr.. Where's the Learning in Service Learning?, p. 36.
217. Linda J. Sax and Alexander W. Astin, "The Development of 'Civic Virtue' among College Students," in John Gardner and Gretchen Van der Veer (eds.), The Senior Year Experience: A Beginning, Not an End (1997), p. 191.
218. Linda J. Sax, Alexander W. Astin, William Korn, and Shannon Gilmartin. The American College Teacher: National Norms for the 1989-1999 HERI Faculty Survey (1999), p. 36.
219. John Dewey. School and Society (2d Ed., 1933). Janet Eyler and Dwight E. Giles Jr., Where's the Learning in Service Learning? (1999), p. 154.
220. Robert D. Putnam. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (2000), p. 45.
221. Peter Levine and Mark H. Lopez, "Youth Turnout Has Declined by Any Measure," The Center for Information and Research on Civic Learning and Engagement (University of Maryland, September 2002), p. 9.
222. Robert D. Putnam. Bowling Alone, p. 252.
223. David T. Z. Mindich. Tuned Out: Why Americans under 40 Don't Follow the News (2005), p. 28. Mindich also points out that this trend is not compensated for by greater use of television news or the Internet.
224. Martin P. Wattenberg. Where Have All the Voters Gone? (2002), p. 93.
225. William A. Galston, "Political Knowledge, Political Engagement, and Civic Education," 4 Annual Review of Political Science (2001), p. 217.
226. Hindy L. Schecter, "Civic Education: Three Early American Political Science Association Committees and Their Relevance to Our Times," 31 PS: Political Science and Politics (1998), p. 631,
227. Mike Bergman, "U.S. Voter Turnout Up in 2004, Census Bureau Reports," U.S. Census Bureau News, press release (May 26, 2005).
228. David C. King. "Youth Came Through with Big Turnout," Boston Globe (November 4, 2004), p. A15.
229. William A. Galston. "Political Knowledge, Political Engagement, and Civic Education," p. 232, and studies cited therein. In reviewing studies on undergraduate education, Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini observe that "education produces substantially greater understanding of the principles of democratic government, greater ability to identify incumbent local and national leaders, more knowledge of political facts"; How College Affects Students, Vol. 2: A Third Decade of Research (2005), p. 329.
230. Sam L. Popkin and Michael A. Dimock. Political Knowledge and Citizen Competence (1999), p. 142.
231. Michael C. Johanek and John Puckett, "The State of Civic Education: Preparing Citizens in an Age of Accountability," in Susan Fuhrman and Marvin Lazerson (eds.), The Public Schools (2005), p. 130.
232. Derek Bok. The Trouble with Government (2001), pp. 405-6.
233. Linda J. Sax, Alexander W. Astin, William S. Korn, and Kathryn Mahoney. The American Freshman: National Norms for Fall 2000 (2000).
234. Linda J. Sax, Alexander W. Astin, William S. Korn, and Kathryn Mahoney. The American Freshman: National Norms for Fall 2003 (2003); "Survey: Fewer Students k Diverse Friends," 52 Chronicle of Higher Education (February 4, 2005), pp. A-1, A-34.
235. Anne Colby, Thomas Ehrlich, Elizabeth Beaumont, and Jason Stephens. Educating Citizens: Preparing America's Undergraduates for Lives of Moral and Civic Responsibility (2003), p. 45.
236. Carol G. Schneider, "Educational Missions and Civic Responsibility," in Thomas Ehrlich (ed.), Civic Responsibility and Higher Education (2000), pp. 98, 120.
237. Linda J. Sax, Alexander W. Astin, William S. Korn, and Shannon K. Gilmartin. The American College Teacher: National Norms for the 1989-1999 HERI Faculty Survey (1999), p. 36.
238. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini. How College Affects Students, pp. 277-78.
239. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini. How College Affects Students, Vol. 2, p. 586.
240. Linda J. Sax and Alexander W. Astin. "Developing Civic Virtue among College Students," in John N. Gardner and Gretchen Van der Veer (eds.), The Senior Year Experience: Facilitating Integration, Reflection, Closure and Transition (1998), p. 133. also Linda J. Sax, "Citizenship Development and the American College Student," in Thomas Ehrlich (ed.), Civic Responsibility and Higher Education (2003), p. 16: "Clearly forming a habit of volunteerism is critical to the long-run development of citizenship."
241. William E. Knox, Paul Lindsay, and Mary N. Kolb. Does College Make a Difference? Long-Term Changes in Activities and Attitudes (1993), pp. 91-92.
242. Dan Drew and David Weaver, "Voter Learning in the 1988 Presidential Election: Did the Debate and the Media Matter?" 68 Journalism Quarterly (1991), p. 27.
243. Carol G. Schneider, "Liberal Education and the Civic Engagement Gap," in Adrianna Kezar, Tony C. Chambers, and John C. Burkhardt (eds.), Higher Education for the Public Good: Emerging Voices from a National Movement (2005), pp. 127, 139, 140.
244. U.S. Department of Education. The New College Course Map and Transcript Files: Changes in Course-Taking and Achievement, 1972-1993 (2d Ed., 1999), pp. 187-89.
245. Norman Nie and Sunshine Hillygus, "Education and Democratic Citizenship," in Diane Ravitch and Joseph Viteritti (eds.), Making Good Citizens: Education and Civil Society (2001), p. 30. 389
246. David E. Campbell. Untapped Potential: Young People and Political Mobilization, Program in American Democracy, University of Notre Dame (2004), Campbell.91@nd.edu.
247. Robert D. Putnam. Bowling Alone, p. 46.
248. William E. Knox. Paul Lindsay, and Mary N. Kolb, Does College Make a Difference?, p. 19.
249. William A. Galston, "Political Knowledge, Political Engagement, and Civic Education," p. 218.
250. Elizabeth Beaumont, Anne Colby, Thomas Ehrlich, and Judith Torney-Purta, "Promoting Political Competence and Engagement in College Students: An Empirical Study," Journal of Political Science Education (in press).
251. Linda J. Sax and Alexander W. Astin, "The Development of 'Civic Virtue' among College Students," in John Gardner and Gretchen Van der Veer (eds.), The Senior Year Experience, p. 19. also Miranda Yates and James Youniss, "Community Service and Political-Moral Identity in Adolescents," 6 Journal of Research on Adolescents (1996), p. 271; Monica Kirkpatrick, Timothy Beebe, Jeylan T. Mortimer, and Mark Snyder, "Volunteerism in Adolescence: A Process Perspective," 8 Journal of Research on Adolescence (1998), p. 309.
252. Janet Eyler and Dwight E. Giles Jr.. Where's the Learning in Service Learning? (1999). Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini report that community service that includes opportunities for reflection shows greater gains in civic interest and commitment than community service by itself; How College Affects Students, Vol. 2, p. 359.
253. Arthur Levine and Jeannette S. Cureton. When Hope and Fear Collide: A Portrait of Today's College Student (1998), p. 54.
254. Sidney Verba, Kay L. Schlozman, and Henry E. Brady. Voice and Equity: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics (1995), pp. 424-25.
255. Elizabeth F. Farrell and Eric Hoover, "Many Colleges Fall Short on Registering Student Voters," 51 Chronicle of Higher Education (September 17, 2004), p. A-1.
256. Matthew Hartley and Elizabeth L. Hollander, "The Elusive Ideal: Civic Learning and Higher Education," in Susan Fuhrman and Marvin Lazerson (eds.), The Public Schools (2005), pp. 252, 272.
257. Laurence Veysey. The Emergence of the American University (1965; First Phoenix Edition, 1970), p. 271.
258. Ernest T. Pascarella, Betsy Palmer, Melinda Moye, and Christopher T. Pierson, "Do Diversity Experiences Influence the Development of Critical Thinking?," 42 Journal of College Student Development (2001), p. 257.
259. Patricia Gurin, Jeffrey S. Lehman, and Earl Lewis. Defending Diversity: Defending Affirmative Action at the University of Michigan (2004), pp. 102, 130.
260. Jack B. Harrison, "Hate Speech: Power in the Marketplace," 25 The Journal of College and University Law (1994), p. 478; Henry Louis Gates Jr., "Let Them Talk," The New Republic (September 20 and 27, 1993), p. 37.
261. Debra Humphreys, "National Survey Finds Diversity Requirements Common around the Country," http://www.diversityweb .org/Digest/FOO/survey.html.
262. Jeffrey F. Milem and Kenji Hakuta, "The Benefits of Racial and Ethnic Diversity in Higher Education," in Deborah J. Wilds (ed.), Minorities in Higher Education: Seventeenth Annual Status Report, American Council on Education (2001), p. 39.
263. Stephan Thernstrom and Abigail Thernstrom. America in Black and White: One Nation, Indivisible (1997), pp. 387-88.
264. Arthur Levine and Jeannette S. Cureton. When Hope and Fear Collide: A Portrait of Today's College Student (1998), p. 91.
265. Beverly D. Tatum, "Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria?" and Other Conversations about Race (1997), p. 78.
266. Sharon B. Gmelch. Gender on Campus: Issues for College Women (1998), p. 96.
267. Donna Henderson-King and Audrey Kaleta, "Learning about Social Diversity: The Undergraduate Experience and Intergroup Tolerance," 71 The Journal of Higher Education (2000), p. 142.
268. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini. How College Affects Students, Vol. 2: A Third Decade of Research (2005), p. 581; Ernest T. Pascarella, Marcia Edison, Amaury Nora, Linda S. Hagedorn, and Patrick T. Terenzini, "Influences on Students' Openness to Diversity and Challenge in the First Year of College," 67 The Journal of Higher Education (1996), pp. 174, 175.
269. Alexander W. Astin. What Matters in College: Four Critical Years Revisited (1993), p. 146; Alexander W. Astin, Jennifer R. Kemp, and Jennifer A. Lindholm, "A Decade of Changes in Undergraduate Education: A National Study of System 'Transformation,'" 25 The Review of Higher Education (2002), pp. 141, 154.
270. William G. Bowen and Derek Bok. The Shape of the River: Long-Term Consequences of Considering Race in College and University Admissions (1998).
271. Sylvia Hurtado, "The Campus Racial Climate: Contexts of Conflict," 63 The Journal of Higher Education (1992), pp. 539,
272. Arthur Levine and Jeannette Cureton. When Hope and Fear Collide, p. 71.
273. Anthony L. Antonio, "The Role of Interracial Interaction in the Development of Leadership Skills and Cultural Knowledge and Understanding," 42 Research in Higher Education (2001), pp. 593, 604.
274. Anthony L. Antonio, "Diversity and the Influence of Friendship Groups in College," 25 The Review of Higher Education (2001), pp. 63, 76, 78.
275. Arthur Levine and Jeannette S. Cureton. When Hope and Fear Collide, p. 72.
276. Howard J. Ehrlich. Campus Ethnoviolence . . . and the Policy Options, Institute Report No. 4, National Institute against Prejudice and Violence (1990), p. iii.
277. Arthur Levine and Jeannette S. Cureton. When Hope and Fear Collide, pp. 71-91, 81.
278. Greg Tanaka. The Intercultural Campus: Transcending Culture and Power in American Higher Education (2003), pp. 91, 74.
279. Ernest T. Pascarella, Marcia Edison, Amaury Nora, Linda S. Hagedorn, and Patrick T. Terenzini, "Influences on Students' Openness to Diversity and Challenge in the First Year of College," pp. 174, 189; Walter G. Stephan and W. Paul Vogt (eds.), Education Programs for Improving Intergroup Relations: Theory, Research, and Practice (2004); Leonard Springer, Betsy Palmer, Patrick T. Terenzini, Ernest T. Pascarella, and Amaury Nora, "Attitudes toward Campus Diversity: Participation in a Racial or Cultural Awareness Workshop," 20 The Review of Higher Education (1996), p. 53; A. Mitchell Chang, "The Impact of an Undergraduate Diversity Course Requirement on Students' Racial Views and Attitudes," 51 The Journal of General Education (2002), p. 21. For more general experimental work on altering perspectives to decrease stereotypes, Adam Galinsky and Gordon B. Moskowitz, "Perspective-Taking: Decreasing Stereotype Expression, Stereotype Accessibility, and In-Group Favoritism," 78 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (2000), p. 708.
280. Greg Tanaka. The Intercultural Campus, pp. 7, 152; Tommy Lee Woon, "Beyond a Leap of Faith: Addressing Second- Generation Diversity Challenges at Stanford University" (unpublished paper, February 6, 1997). For a forceful presentation of what can go wrong in racial sensitivity sessions, Charles Alan Kors, "Bad Faith: The Politicization of the University in Loco Parentis," in Howard Dickman (ed.), The Imperiled Academy (1993), p. 153. For a more nuanced view of the pitfalls, Marcia Baxter Magola, "Facilitating Meaningful Dialogues about Race," 2 About Campus (November 1997), p. 14.
281. Gordon W. Allport. The Nature of Prejudice (1954). Much experimental evidence confirms the contact theory; Marilynn B. Brewer and Rupert J. Brown, "Intergroup Relations," in Daniel T. Gilbert, Susan T. Fiske, and Gardner Lindzey (eds.), The Handbook of Social Psychology, Vol. 2, pp. 554, 576-83.
282. Elizabeth J. Whitt. Marcia Edison, Ernest T. Pascarella, Patrick T. Terenzini, and Amaury Nora, "Influences on Students' Openness to Diversity and Challenge in the Second and Third Years of College," 72 The Journal of Higher Education (2001), pp. 172, 195.
283. Walter G. Stephan and W. Paul Vogt (eds.). Education Programs for Improving Intergroup Relations: Theory, Research, and Practice (2004).
284. Sharon B. Gmelch. Gender on Campus: Issues for College Women (1998), p. 103. also Beverly D. Tatum, "Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria?" p. 78.
285. Richard J. Light. Making the Most of College: Students Speak Their Minds (2001), pp. 180-81.
286. Theodore Cross, "The Good News That the Thernstroms Neglected to Tell," The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, No. 42 (Winter 2003/2004), p. 3.
287. Gary Orfield. The Growth of Segregation in American Schools: Changing Patterns of Separation and Poverty Since 1968 (1993).
288. Barbara N. Solomon. In the Company of Educated Women: A History of Women and Higher Education in America (1985), p. 95; Helen L. Horowitz, Campus Life: Undergraduate Cultures from the End of the Eighteenth Century to the Present (1987).
289. Barbara N. Solomon. In the Company of Educated Women, p. 127.
290. Leslie Miller-Bernal. Separate by Degree: Women Students' Experiences in Single-Sex and Coeducational Colleges (2000), p. 209.
291. Mabel Newcomer. A Century of Higher Education for American Women (1959), p. 49.
292. Barbara N. Solomon. In the Company of Educated Women, p. 119.
293. Mabel Newcomer. A Century of Higher Education for American Women, p. 203.
294. Suzanne Imes. A Look at Coeducational Living in Institutions of Higher Education (1966); Judith Corbett and Robert Sommer, "Anatomy of a Coed Residence Hall," 13 Journal of College Student Personnel (May 1972), p. 215; Elizabeth A. Reid, "Effects of Coresidential Living on the Attitudes, Self-Image, and Role Expectations of Women," 131 American Journal of Psychiatry (1974), p. 551.
295. David A. Hoekema. Campus Rules and Moral Community: In Place of in Loco Parentis (1994), p. 15.
296. Norval Glenn and Elizabeth Marquardt. Hooking Up, Hanging Out, and Hoping for Mr. Right, Institute for American Values Report to the Independent Women's Forum (2001), p. 14
297. Dorothy C. Holland and Margaret A. Eisenhart. Educated in Romance: Women, Achievement, and College Culture (1990), pp. 79, 111, 149.
298. Norval Glenn and Elizabeth Marquardt. Hooking Up, Hanging Out, and Hoping for Mr. Right, pp. 26, 13.
299. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini. How College Affects Students: Findings and Insights from Twenty Years of Research (1991), p. 326. also studies cited on pages 293-95.
300. Norval Glenn and Elizabeth Marquardt. Hooking Up, Hanging Out, and Hoping for Mr. Right, pp. 61, 26.
301. Martin D. Schwartz and Walter S. Dekesredy. Sexual Assault on Campus: The Role of Male Peer Support (1997), pp. 11-13; Mary P. Koss, Christine A. Gidycz, and Nadine Wisniewski, "The Scope of Rape: Incidence and Prevalence of Sexual Aggression and Victimization in a National Sample of Higher Education Students," 55 Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology (1987), p. 162. For a skeptical view of such findings, Neil Gilbert, "The Phantom Epidemic of Sexual Assault," Public Interest, No. 103 (Spring 1991), p. 54.
302. Jennifer Scanlon, "Campus Tolerates Violence," 4 Women in Higher Education (April 1995), p. 19.
303. Luoluo Hong, "Toward a Transformed Approach to Prevention: Breaking the Link between Masculinity and Violence,"Journal of American College Health (2000), p. 269.
304. Alexander W. Astin. What Matters in College, p. 142.
305. Alan J. Berkowitz. Man and Rape: Theory, Research and Prevention Programs in Higher Education (1994).
306. Richard D. Lambert, "New Directions in International Education," 449 Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science (May 1980), p. 14.
307. Robert B. Woyach. Understanding the Global Arena: A Report on the Ohio State Awareness Survey (1989). Apparently the modest improvements from freshman to senior year were typical of the other colleges in the survey; Thomas S. Barrows, Stephen S. Klein, and John L. D. Clark, College Students' Knowledge and Beliefs: A Survey of Global Understanding (1981).
308. Martha C. Nussbaum. Cultivating Humanity: A Classical Defense of Reform in Liberal Education (1997), pp. 50-51.
309. Richard D. Lambert. International Studies and the Undergraduate (1989), p. 151.
310. Laura Siaya and Fred M. Hayward. Mapping Internationalization on U.S. Campuses (2003), p. 24. More precisely, 19 percent of the slightly more than half of colleges with an international requirement required three or more courses.
311. Richard D. Lambert. International Studies and the Undergraduate, pp. 122-23, 114.
312. Laura Siaya and Fred M. Hayward. Mapping Internationalization on U.S. Campuses, p. 7.
313. U.S. Department of Education. The New College Course Map and Transcript Files: Changes in Course-Taking and Achievement, 1972-1993 (2d Ed., 1999), pp. 187, 189.
314. Laura Siaya and Fred M. Hayward. Mapping Internationalization on U.S. Campuses, p. 104.
315. Richard D. Lambert. International Studies and the Undergraduate, pp. 130, 133.
316. Laura Siaya and Fred M. Hayward, Mapping Internationalization on U.S. Campuses, pp. 13, 21, 103.
317. Alice C. O'Maggio. Teaching Language in Context (1986).
318. generally Joel C. Walz (ed.). Development and Supervision of Teaching Assistants in Foreign Languages (1992).
319. Richard D. Lambert, "Languages and International Studies," in Wilga Rivers (ed.), Teaching Languages in College: Curriculum and Content (1992), p. 285.
320. Wilga Rivers (ed.). Teaching Languages in College, p. 381.
321. "Language teaching can affect language acquisition . . . but I must acknowledge that my conviction is based largely on intuition- and a certain educational conservatism"; Patsy Lightbowm, "Can Language Acquisition Be Altered by Instruction?," in Kenneth Hyltenstam and Manfred Pienemann (eds.), Modeling and Assessing Second Language Acquisition (1985), pp. 101, 106. For a somewhat dated review of the evidence, Michael H. Long, "Does Second Language Instruction Make a Difference?," 17 TESOL Quarterly (1983), p. 359.
322. Alexander W. Astin. What Matters in College: Four Critical Years Revisited (1993), p. 223.
323. Laura Siaya and Fred M. Hayward. Mapping Internationalization on U.S. Campuses, p. 25.
324. Jerry S. Carlson, Barbara B. Burn, John Um, and David Yachimowicz. Study Abroad: The Experience of American Undergraduates (1990); Norman L. Kauffmann, Judith M. Martin, and Henry D. Weaver, Students Abroad, Strangers at Home: Education for a Global Society (1992).
325. Norman L. Kauffmann, Judith M. Martin, and Henry D. Weaver. Students Abroad, Strangers at Home: Education for a Global Society (1992); K. E. Gingerich, "The Impact of Study Abroad and Didactic Cross-Cultural Coursework Experiences on the Development of White Racial Consciousness and Cultural Sensitivity," unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas (1998); D. H. Wallace, "Academic Study Abroad: The Long-Term Impact on Alumni Careers, Volunteer Activities, World and Personal Perspectives," unpublished doctoral dissertation, Claremont Graduate University (1999).
326. Jerry S. Carlson, Barbara B. Burn, John Um, and David Yachimowicz. Study Abroad: The Experience of American Undergraduates (1990), p. 114.
327. Laura Siaya and Fred M. Hayward. Mapping Internationalization on U.S. Campuses, p. 77.
328. Richard D. Lambert, International Studies and the Undergraduate, pp. 31, 27.
329. Crauford D. Goodwin and Michael Nacht. Abroad and Beyond: Patterns in American Overseas Education (1989).
330. Katherine H. Hanson and Joel W. Meyerson. International Challenges to American Colleges and Universities: Looking Ahead (1995), p. 31; Patrick O'Meara, Howard D. Mehlinger, and Roxana M. Newman, Changing Perspectives on International Education (2001), p. 199.
331. Crauford D. Goodwin and Michael Nacht. Missing the Boat: The Failure to Internationalize American Higher Education (1991). On p. 112, Goodwin and Nacht observe that "the flood of foreign students lapped on the shores with hardly a notice in many places, except perhaps occasional expressions of welcome or annoyance." For a more optimistic account, Chun-mei Zhou, George D. Kuh, and Robert M. Corini, "A Comparison of International Student and American Student Engagement in Effective Educational Practices," 76 The Journal of Higher Education (2005), p. 259.
332. Thomas S. Barrows, Stephen F. Klein, and John L. D. Clark. College Student Beliefs (1981), pp. 36, 39. 33. Alexander W. Astin, What Matters in College, p. 223.
333. Martha C. Nussbaum. Cultivating Humanity, especially pp. 113-47.
334. Laura Siaya and Fred M. Hayward, Mapping Internationalization on U.S. Campuses, pp. 107, 109.
335. Mallory Young, "It's Not Just French 101: It's an Introduction to 'Tout le Monde,'" 47 The Chronicle Review, Chronicle of Higher Education (May 11, 2001), p. B-12. "Two years will not give [students] true facility in a language. . . . What four semesters will give you is time to experience how another language works, how it differs from your own, how different cultures are affected by their different ways of speaking." also David W. Pankenier, "College- Level Foreign-Language Requirements Do Not Work," 37 Chronicle of Higher Education (December 5, 1990), p. B-1.
336. Richard D. Lambert. International Studies and the Undergraduate, p. 72.
337. Stephen F. Klein and John L. D. Clark. What College Students Know and Believe about Their World (1984), pp. 36, 38.
338. Alice C. O'Maggio. Teaching Language in Context, p. 357.
339. Richard J. Light. The Harvard Assessment Seminars, Second Report: Explorations with Students and Faculty about Teaching, Learning, and Student Life (1992), pp. 75, 80.
340. Laura Siaya and Fred M. Hayward. Mapping Internationalization on U.S. Campuses, pp. 88-89.
341. Richard D. Lambert. International Studies and the Undergraduate, p. 66.
342. Patricia R. Chaput, "Language Teaching: Raising Expectations for Instructor Preparation," in Benjamin Rifkin (ed.), Mentoring Foreign Language Teaching Assistants, Lecturers and Adjunct Faculty (2001), p. 191.
343. Laura Siaya and Fred M. Hayward. Mapping Internationalization on U.S. Campuses, p. 110.
344. Darla K. Deardorff, "The Identification and Assessment of Intercultural Competence of a Student Outcome of International Education at Institutions of Higher Education in the United States," dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty of North Carolina State University (2004).
345. Richard D. Lambert. International Studies and the Undergraduate, p. 149.
346. Laura Siaya and Fred M. Hayward. Mapping Internationalization on U.S. Campuses, pp. 92, 93, 99.
347. Joseph P. Lash. Helen and Teacher: The Story of Helen Keller and Anne Sullivan Macy (1980), p. 315.
348. Elizabeth A. Jones, "Is a Core Curriculum Best for Everybody?" 80 New Directions for Higher Education (1992), p. 37.
349. Sheila Blumstein. A Report to the President: The Brown Curriculum Twenty Years Later: A Review of the Past and a Working Agenda for the Future (1990), pp. 22-23.
350. Sheila Tobias. They're Not Dumb, They're Different: Stalking the Second Tier (1991).
351. Daniel Bell, The Reforming of General Education: The Columbia College Experience in Its National Setting (Anchor Edition, 1968), p. 291.
352. William J. Bennett. To Reclaim a Legacy: A Report on the Humanities in Higher Education (1984); Lynne V. Cheney, 50 Hours: A Core Curriculum for College Students (1989).
353. David Denby. Great Books: My Adventures with Homer, Rousseau, Woolf, and Other Indestructible Writers of the Western World (1996).
354. James V. Mirollo, "The Humanities in the Core Curriculum at Columbia College," in Michael Nelson and Associates, Alive at the Core: Exemplary Approaches to General Education in the Humanities (2000), p. 20.
355. Daniel Bell. The Reforming of General Education. For a description of one college's deliberation leading to a modes-ofinquiry curriculum, Phyllis Keller, Getting at the Core: Curricular Reform at Harvard (1982).
356. Alexander W. Astin. What Matters in College: Four Critical Years Revisited (1993), pp. 334, 425.
357. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini. How College Affects Students: Findings and Insights from Twenty Years of Research (1991), p. 271. The same authors estimate these gains as relatively small; How College Affects Students, Vol. 2: A Third Decade of Research (2005), p. 285.
358. George D. Kuh. "How Are We Doing? Tracking the Quality of the Undergraduate Experience, 1960s to the Present," 22 The Review of Higher Education (1999), pp. 99, 105; Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini, How College Affects Students, Vol. 2, p. 285.
359. William E. Knox. Paul Lindsay, and Mary N. Kolb, Does College Make a Difference? Long-Term Changes in Activities and Attitudes (1993), p. 68.
360. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini. How College Affects Students, pp. 320-21.
361. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini. How College Affects Students, Vol. 2, p. 142. A recent survey by the National Endowment for the Arts also reveals that college graduates are more likely than adults with only a high school education to have read at least one book of literature during the preceding year (66.7 percent versus 36.7 percent). The figure for college graduates, however, has dropped from 82.1 percent in 1982; Reading at Risk: A Survey of Literary Reading in America (2004), p. 25.
362. Maurice P. Marchant. Why Adults Use the Public Library: A Research Perspective (1994); Maurice P. Marchant, "What Motivates Adult Use of Public Libraries?" 13 Library and Information Service Research (1991), p. 201.
363. Douglas H. Heath, "What the Enduring Effects of Higher Education Tell Us about a Liberal Education," 47 The Journal of Higher Education (1976), p. 173.
364. Arthur Levine, "Career Education: A Prospective, a Retrospective, and a Few Guesses," in Mary Ann Rehnke (ed.), Career Programs in a Liberal Arts Context (1985), pp. 13, 14.
365. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini. How College Affects Students, Vol. 2: A Third Decade of Research (2005), p. 445.
366. Joan Stark and Malcolm Lowther. Strengthening the Ties That Bind: Integrating Undergraduate Liberal and Professional Study: Report of the Professional Preparation Network (1988), p. 33.
367. National Center for Education Statistics. Undergraduate Enrollments in Academic, Career, and Vocational Education (February 2004), p. 1.
368. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini. How College Affects Students: Findings and Insights from Twenty Years of Research (1991), pp. 430, 433-34, 501, 506. The authors (p. 427) find that a college education has similar effects on occupational status.
369. Alexander W. Astin. What Matters in College: Four Critical Years Revisited (1993), pp. 246-48.
370. William G. Bowen and Derek Bok. The Shape of the River: Long-Term Consequences of Considering Race in College and University Admissions (1998), pp. 103-6.
371. Darrell A. Luzzo (ed.). Career Counseling of College Students: An Empirical Guide to Strategies That Work (2000), pp. 50-59, 81-83.
372. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini. How College Affects Students, Vol. 2, p. 446.
373. Edward A. Colozzi, "Toward the Development of Systematic Career Guidance," in Darrell A. Luzzo (ed.), Career Counseling of College Students, p. 297.
374. Patrick H. Hardesty, "Undergraduate Career Courses for Credit: A Review and Meta-Analysis," 34 Journal of College Student Development (1991), pp. 184-85; Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini, How College Affects Students, Vol. 2, p. 499.
375. David G. Blanchflower and Andrew J. Oswald, "Well- Being, Insecurity, and the Decline of American Job Satisfaction" (unpublished paper, National Bureau of Economic Research, July 22, 1999). As the title implies, the authors find a decline in those who report that they are very satisfied with their current job.
376. Robert E. Lane, The Loss of Happiness in Market Democracies (2000), pp. 168-69.
377. Mary T. Coleman and John Pencaval, "Changes in Work Hours of Male Employees, 1940-1988," 46 Industrial and Labor Relations Review (1993), p. 202; Robert D. Reich, The Future of Success (2001), p. 121, reporting that the percentage of managerial and professional personnel working an average in excess of 50 hours per week rose by more than one-third since 1985.
378. Robert Granfield. Making Elite Lawyers: Visions of Law at Harvard (1992).
379. Amy Delong, "Retaining Legal Talent," 29 Capitol University Law Review (2002), p. 893; Gregory J. Mazares, "Associate Retention of Law Firms: What Are Your Lawyers Saying about You?" 29 Capitol University Law Review (2002), p. 903, reporting that only two in three lawyers plan on spending their entire careers in the law.
380. Patrick Shiltz, "On Being a Happy, Healthy, and Ethical Member of an Unhappy, Unhealthy, and Unethical Profession," 52 Vanderbilt Law Review (1999), p. 871; Connie J. Beck, Bruce D. Saks, and G. Andrew Benjamin, "Lawyer Distress: Alcohol- Related Problems and Other Psychological Concerns among a Sample of Practicing Lawyers," 10 Journal of Law and Health (1990), p. 45. For a much brighter view of law as a career, Charles Silver and Frank B. Cross, "What's Not to Like about Being a Lawyer?," 109 Yale Law Journal (1999), p. 1443.
381. Adam Smith. An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (New York: Modern Library, 1939), p. 106. On contemporary students and their unrealistic job expectations, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi and Barbara Schneider, Becoming Adult: How Teenagers Prepare for the World of Work (2000).
382. Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., "The Profession and the Law," in Collected Legal Papers (1920), pp. 29-30.
383. Kenneth R. Andrews, "Liberal Education for Competence and Responsibility," in Thomas J. Donaldson and R. Edward Freeman (eds.), Business as a Humanity (1994), pp. 153-54.
384. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini. How College Affects Students, pp. 469-70.
385. Michael Um. Liberal Education and the Corporation: The Hiring and Advancement of College Graduates (1989), pp. 91-119.
386. Samuel C. Florman. The Civilized Engineer (1987), p. 202.
387. U.S. Department of Education, "Curricular Content of Bachelors' Degrees (1986)," cited in Michael Um, Liberal Education and the Corporation, p. 70.
388. Alexander W. Astin. What Matters in College, pp. 236-41, 302-10, 371-72.
389. Norman Nie and Sunshine Hillygus, "Education and Democratic Citizenship," in Diane Ravitch and Joseph Viteritti (eds.), Making Good Citizens: Educational and Civil Society (2001), p. 30.
390. Elaine Seat, J. Roger Parsons, and William A. Poppen, "Enabling Engineering Performance Skills: A Program to Teach Communication, Leadership, and Teamwork," Journal of Engineering Education (2001), pp. 7-8.
391. Rosalind Williams, "Education for the Profession Formerly Known as Engineering," 49 Chronicle of Higher Education (January 24, 2003), p. B12. "The convergence of technological and liberal arts education is a deep, long-term, and irreversible trend. Students need to be prepared for life in a world where technological, scientific, humanistic, and social issues are all mixed together. Such mixing will not occur if students have to decide from the outset that they are attending an 'engineering school' as opposed to a 'nonengineering school.'" Professor Williams is director of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Program in Science, Technology, and Society.
392. Christopher J. Lucas. Teacher Education in America: Reform Agenda for the Twenty-First Century (1997);
393. Robert A. Roth (ed.). The Role of the University in the Preparation of Teachers (1999).
394. Rita Kramer. Ed School Follies: The Miseducation of America's Teachers (1991). For a more sympathetic account of schools of education, David F. Labaree, The Trouble with Ed Schools (2004).
395. Alexander W. Astin. What Matters in College, pp. 236-40, 370-71.
396. Jean A. King, "The Uneasy Relationship between Teacher Education and the Liberal Arts and Sciences," 38 Journal of Teacher Education (1987), p. 6. also David F. Labaree, "Too Easy a Target: The Trouble with Ed Schools and the Implications for the University," 85 Academe (January-February 1999), p. 34.
397. Alexander W. Astin. What Matters in College, pp. 238-40, 370.
398. Norman Nie and Sunshine Hillygus, "Education and Democratic Citizenship," p. 30.
399. Diana G. Oblinger and Anne-Lee Verville. What Business Wants from Higher Education (1998); Robert T. Jones, "Liberal Education for the Twenty-First Century: Business Expectations," 91 Liberal Education (Spring 2005), pp. 32, 34.
400. Noreen R. Sharpe and Gordon D. Pritchett, "Business Curricula Should Integrate Liberal-Arts and Vocational Studies," 50 Chronicle of Higher Education (April 2, 2004), p. B19.
401. Diana G. Oblinger and Anne-Lee Verville. What Business Wants from Higher Education; Michael Um, Liberal Education and the Corporation; John W. Gardner and Gretchen Vander Veer, The Senior Year Experience: Facilitating Integration, Reflection, Closure, and Transition (1998).
402. George D. Kuh, "What We're Learning about Student Engagement from NSSE," 35 Change (March-April 2003), p. 28.
403. Michelle V. Rafter, "Liberal Arts Grads Get the Business," 83 Workforce Management (September 1, 2004), p. 20.
404. Michael Um. Liberal Education and the Corporation, p. 69.
405. The Economist, "Special Report: Financing Universities" (January 24, 2004), pp. 23, 24.
406. "The Chronicle Survey of Public Opinion on Higher Education," 50 The Chronicle of Higher Education (May 7, 2004), p. A12.
407. William G. Bowen and Derek Bok. The Shape of the River: Long-Term Consequences of Considering Race in College and University Admissions (1998), p. 196.
408. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini. How College Affects Students: Findings and Insights from Twenty Years of Research (1991).
409. William G. Bowen and Derek Bok. The Shape of the River, p. 212.
410. Patricia M. King and Karen S. Kitchener. Developing Reflective Judgment: Understanding and Promoting Intellectual Growth and Critical Thinking in Adolescents and Adults (1994), p. 167.
411. Alexander W. Astin. What Matters in College: Four Critical Years Revisited (1993), p. 223.
412. Linda J. Sax, Alexander W. Astin, William S. Korn, and Shannon K. Gilmartin. The American College Teacher: National Norms for the 1989-1999 HERI Faculty Survey (1999), p. 35.
413. Lion F. Gardiner. Redesigning Higher Education: Producing Dramatic Gains in Student Learning (1994), p. 57.
414. D. Kent Johnson, James L. Ratcliff, and Jerry G. Gaff, "A Decade of Change in General Education," New Directions for Higher Education, No. 125 (Spring 2004), pp. 9, 17, 18.
415. William G. Bowen and Derek Bok. The Shape of the River, pp. 72-90.
416. James L. Shulman and William G. Bowen. The Game of Life: College Sports and Educational Values (2001), p. 66.
417. Alexander W. Astin. Assessment for Excellence: The Philosophy and Practice of Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education (1993), pp. 216-30;
418. Peter T. Ewell, "The Role of States and Accreditors in Shaping Assessment Practice," in Lester F. Goodchild (ed.), Public Policy and Higher Education (1997), p. 305.
419. Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick Terenzini. How College Affects Students, p. 592.
420. Pat Hutchins and Lee S. Shulman, "The Scholarship of Teaching: New Elaborations, New Developments," 31 Change (September-October 1999), pp. 10, 13.