The "end of men" is not true: What is not and what might be on the road toward gender equality

Boston University Law Review

Volumn 93, Issue 3, 2013, Pages 1159-1184

  Cohen, Philip N ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 84883425681     PISSN: 00068047     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (98)

1. Hanna Rosin, Male Decline Is No Myth, SLATE (Oct. 2, 2012, 5:06 PM), http://www.sla te.com/articles/double-x/doublex/2012/10/male-decline-is-no-myth- why-that-new-york-times-op-ed-has-it-wrong-.html.
2. Hanna Rosin, The End of Men, ATLANTIC, July/Aug. 2010, at 56.
3. Hanna Rosin, New Data on the Rise of Women, TED, http://www.ted.com/ talks/hanna-rosin-new-data-on-the-rise-of-wornen.html (last visited Mar. 1, 2013).
4. HANNA ROSIN, THE END OF MEN: AND THE END OF MEN (2012).
5. I do not deal with Rosin's chapter on Asia in this Essay. For an excellent review, see Mara Hvistendahl, Nobody Told Asia About The End of Men, FOREIGN POL'Y (Sept. 19, 2012), http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/09/ 19/nobody-told-asia-about-the-end-of-men (critiquing Rosin's attempt to extend her end of men theory to Asia, where "the 'end of men' meme - as well as the data backing it up - is particularly problematic").
6. For a review of stalled progress toward gender equality, see David A. Cotter et al., The End of the Gender Revolution? Gender Role Attitudes from 1977 to 2008, 117 AM. J. SOC. 259 (2011)
7. and Paula England, The Gender Revolution: Uneven and Stalled, 24 GENDER & SOC'Y 149 (2010).
8. Hanna Rosin, Who Wears the Pants in This Economy?, N. Y. TIMES, Sept. 2, 2012, (Magazine), at 22.
9. See Philip N. Cohen et al., Stalled Progress? Gender Segregation and Wage Inequality Among Managers, 1980-2000, 36 WORK & OCCUPATIONS 318, 318 (2009) (finding that "after decreasing in the 1980s, gender segregation among managers rebounded sharply upward in the 1990s").
10. For example, four percent of Fortune 1000 CEOs are women. See Women CEOs of the Fortune 1000, CATALYST (Jan. 1, 2013), http://www.catalyst.org/ publication/271/womenceos-of-the-fortune-1000.
11. See Household Data, 2011 Annual Averages - Employed Persons by Detailed Occupation, Sex, Race, and Hispanic or Latino Ethnicity, BUREAU LAB. STAT. (2011), www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaatl 1.pdf.
12. About Reach Advisors in the New York Times Sunday Magazine Article, REACH ADVISORS, http://www.reachadvisors.com/about-reach-advisors-in-the-new-york- times-sund ay-magazine-article (last visited Mar. 1, 2013) (answering common questions about "data on how the median full-time income for young, single, childless women is higher than that of their male peers").
13. The analysis used microdata from the 2010 American Community Survey, which can be viewed by accessing Steven Ruggles et al., Univ. of Minn., Integrated Public Use Microdata Series: Version 5.0 [Machine-Readable Database], https://usa.ipums.org/usa/ (last visited Mar. 1, 2013).
14. For the details of that analysis, with figures illustrating the results, see Philip N. Cohen, Mystery Solved? Why "Women in their 20s" Earn More, FAM. INEQUALITY (Sept. 17, 2012), http://familyinequality.wordpress.com/ 2012/09/17/why-wome n-in-their-20s-earn-more/ (finding that fulltime, year-round-employed, never-married, metropolitan-area-dwelling workers between the ages of twenty-two and thirty include 23.7% Latinos among men but only 15.9% Latinas among women, and 59.4% whites among women but only 55.2% whites among men).
15. My calculations for this were presented in Stephanie Coontz, The Myth of Male Decline, N. Y TIMES, Sept. 29, 2012, at SR1 ("Among never-married, childless 22-to 30-year-old metropolitan-area workers with the same educational credentials, males out-earn females in every category, according to a reanalysis of census data to be presented⋯ at Boston University by Philip Cohen. ").
16. See Table 283: Degrees Conferred by Degree-Granting Institutions, by Level of Degree and Sex of Student: Selected Years, 1869-70 Through 2020-21, NAT'L CENTER EDUC. STAT., http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/dll/tables/dtll- 283.asp (last visited Mar. 16, 2013) (showing annual number of associate's, bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees awarded by gender).
17. JULIE SIEBENS & CAMILLE L. RYAN, U. S. CENSUS BUREAU, FIELD OF BACHELOR'S DEGREE IN THE UNITED STATES: 2009, at 5 tbl.2(2012), available at http://www.census.gov/prod/2012pubs/acs-18.pdf (stating that females between the ages of twenty-five and thirtynine constitute 30.6% of all computers, mathematics, and engineering bachelor's degrees, while females sixty-five and over constitute 29.9% of such degrees).
18. See Philip Cohen, Women's Economic Dominance: Is It Really Inevitable?, ATLANTIC (Oct. 31, 2012, 11:07 AM), http://www.theatlantic.com/sexes/archive/ 2012/10/womens-eco nomic-dominance-is-it-really-inevitable/264312/ (arguing that "[t]he ostensibly genderneutral processes of economic transformation are not the source of women's progress they once were").
19. See Margaret Wente, Plastic Women, Cardboard Men, GLOBE & MAIL, Sept. 15, 2012, at F11 ("Of the 30 professions projected to add the most jobs over the next decade, women dominate 20.");
20. Anna Louise Sussman, Is 'End of Men' an Overstatement?, CHI. TRIB. (Oct. 5, 2012), http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-10-05/features/sc-ent-1003- books-end-me n-20121005-l-hanna-rosin-women-managerial-jobs ("Rosin⋯ points to growth in femaledominated occupational sectors as proof that women are winning the day.").
21. See Press Release, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment Projections - 2010-20, at 1 (Feb. 1, 2012), available at http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/ ecopro.pdf (projecting "[i]ndustries and occupations related to health care, personal care and social assistance, and construction⋯ to have the fastest job growth between 2010 and 2020").
22. David Cotter et al., Women's Work and Working Women: The Demand for Female Labor, 15 GENDER & SOC'Y 429, 436 (2001).
23. See Philip N. Cohen, Gender Integration's Lost Decade, FAM. INEQUALITY (Oct. 24, 2011), http://familyinequality.wordpress.com/2011/10/24/gender- integrations-lost-decade/ (showing the trends in occupational gender segregation from 1950 to 2010).
24. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS, INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS OF ANNUAL LABOR FORCE STATISTICS 12 tbl.9(2012), available at http://www.bls.gov/fls/ flscomparelf/lfcompe ndium.pdf (stating that women's share of the U. S. labor force was 46.6%).
25. See, e.g., Alex Williams, Just Wait Until Your Mother Gets Home, N. Y. TIMES, Aug. 12, 2012, at ST1 ("In the last decade⋯ the number of men who have left the work force entirely to raise children has more than doubled⋯.").
26. U. S. CENSUS BUREAU, PARENTS AND CHILDREN IN STAY-AT-HOME PARENT FAMILY GROUPS: 1994 TO PRESENT (2011), available at http://census.gov/population/ socdemo/hh-fa m/shpl.xls.
27. See Philip N. Cohen, Homogamy Unmodified, 3 J. FAM. THEORY & REV. 47, 47 (2011) ("I suggest that two existing terms - homogamy and heterogamy - be repurposed to signify same-sex and opposite-sex unions respectively, thus permitting balanced labeling of union types.").
28. These figures are my adaptation of U. S. CENSUS BUREAU, TABLE FG4: MARRIED COUPLE FAMILY GROUPS, BY PRESENCE OF OWN CHILDREN IN SPECIFIC AGE GROUPS, AND AGE, EARNINGS, EDUCATION, AND RACE AND HISPANIC ORIGIN OF BOTH SPOUSES: 2011(2011), available at http://www.census.gov/hhes/families/files/ cps2011/tabFG4-all.xls.
29. See David Appell, The Sun Will Eventually Engulf Earth - Maybe, SCI. AM. (Sept. 8, 2008), http://www.scientificamerican. com/article.cfm?id=the-sunwill- eventually-engulf-earth-maybe.
30. Sanjiv Gupta, Autonomy, Dependence, or Display? The Relationship Between Married Women's Earnings and Housework, 69 J. MARRIAGE & FAM. 399, 399-400 (2007) (arguing that there is a strong relationship between women's autonomous earnings and their share of housework).
31. Claudia Geist & Patricia A. McManus, Different Reasons, Different Results: Implications of Migration by Gender and Family Status, 49 DEMOGRAPHY 197, 197 (2011) (arguing that achieving "[e]qual breadwinner status may protect women from becoming tied movers").
32. See Stephanie Coontz, Op-Ed., The M. R. S. and the Ph. D., N. Y. TIMES, Feb. 12, 2012, at SR1 ("Almost 30 percent of wives today have more education than their husbands, while less than 20 percent of husbands have more education than their wives⋯.").
33. Gretchen E. Gooding & Rose M. Kreider, Women's Marital Naming Choices in a Nationally Representative Sample, 31 J. FAM. ISSUES 681, 690 (2010) ("There were 3.1 million married women who used a different surname than their husbands, comprising 6.4% of all native-born married women. ").
34. INTERNATIONAL DIRECTORY OF COMPANY HISTORIES 399, 401 (Jay P. Pederson ed., 2000) (discussing Russell's decisions between 1998 and 1999 to eliminate 4000 jobs, close twenty-five plants, move most of its final assembly to Central America and the Caribbean, and to open a second headquarters in Atlanta in order to "make marketing more convenient and to aid in recruiting efforts, particularly of marketing aces who did not relish the idea of living in the small town of Alexander City").
35. This detail is so riveting that Katie Roiphe repeated it in her review, Is This the End of Men?, FrN. TIMES (Oct. 5, 2012, 7:07 PM), http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/2/e3e2482a-0cea-l Ie2-a73c-00144feabdc0.html.
36. Breaking News: Young Wins Mayor's Race, ALEXCITYOUTLOOK. COM (Sept. 14, 2004, 12:00 AM), http://www.alexcityoutlook.com/2004/09/14/breaking-news-young- wins-mayor s-race/ ("For the first time in the history of the city, Alexander City will have a female mayor. Barbara Young defeated incumbent Don McClellan 2, 045 to 1, 989 in Tuesday's municipal run-off election. ").
37. Political Winds Change, ALEXCITYOUTLOOK. COM (Dec. 26, 2008, 12:00 AM), http://w ww.alexcityoutlook.com/2008/12/26/political-winds-change/.
38. City Council, ALEXANDER CITY, http://www.alexandercityonline.com/council. html (last visited Mar, 2, 2013) (showing that the only female member elected to city council was Sherry Ellison-Simpson).
39. Virginia Spears, Shaw, Lamborne to Face Off Oct. 9, ALEXCITYOLUTLOOK. COM (Aug. 29, 2012, 10:27 AM), http://www.alexcityoutlook.com/2012/08/29/shaw- lambome-to-faceoff-oct-9/.
40. Austin Nelson, City Elects Shaw as Mayor, ALEXCITYOUTLOOK. COM (Oct. 10, 2012, 12:13 PM), http://www.alexcityoutlook.com/2012/10/10/city-elects-shaw-as- mayor/.
41. See Senior Nutrition Program, ALEXANDER CITY, http://www. alexandercityonline.com/senior.html (last visited Feb. 18, 2013) (listing Janice Taylor, head of the Senior Nutrition Program, who Was the only female department head).
42. See Table BI9325: Sex by Work Experience in the Past 12 Months by Income in the Past 12 Months (In 2010 Inflation-Adjusted Dollars) for the Population 15 Years and Over, U. S. CENSUS BUREAU, http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/ tableservices/jsf/pages/productvie w.xhtml?pid=ACS-10-5YR-B19325&prodType= table (detailing income estimates for the 2006-to-2010 period for residents of Alexander City, Alabama).
43. See Table B23001: Sex by Age by Employment Status for the Population 16 Years and Over, U. S. CENSUS BUREAU, http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/ tableservices/jsf/pages/prod uctview.xhtml?pid=ACS-10-5YR-B23001&prodType= table (providing estimates for the 2006-to-2010 period for the employment status of residents of Alexander City, Alabama).
44. See Economic Development, CITY OF AUBURN, http://www.auburnalabama.org/ ed/Default.aspx?PageID=4 9 (last visited Apr. 1, 2013).
45. City Council Members, CITY OF AUBURN, http://www.auburnalabama.org/cc/ Default.as px?PageID=145 (last visited Feb. 18, 2013).
46. See Press Release, City of Auburn, Ron Anders Appointed Ward 2 Councilperson (Nov. 7, 2012), available at http://www.auburnalabama.org/ PressRelease.aspx?PRID=762.
47. Office of the City Manager, CITY OF AUBURN, http://www.auburnalabama.org/ Default. aspx?PageID=530 (last visited Feb. 18, 2013) (listing Penny Smith (Finance Department) and Rebecca Richardson (Parks and Recreation) as the only female Auburn department heads).
48. Board of Trustees, AUBURN U., http://www.aubum.edu/administration/ trustees (last visited Feb. 18, 2013) (listing two women out of fourteen trustees on the Board).
49. See Table S2401: Occupation by Sex and Median Earnings in the Past 12 Months (in 2010 Inflation-Adjusted Dollars) for the Civilian Employed Population 16 Years and Over, U. S. Census Bureau, http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/ tableservices/jsf/pages/productvie w.xhtml?pid=ACS-10-5YR-S2401&prodType= table (detailing employment estimates for residents of Auburn City, Alabama between 2006 and 2010).
50. For the details of that analysis, with figures illustrating the results, see Philip N. Cohen, Hanna Rosin Reality Check, Part Whatever, FAM. INEQUALITY (Sept. 1, 2012), http://family inequality.wordpress.com/2012/09/01/hanna-rosin- reality-check-part-whatever/.
51. Stephen Marche, The Contempt of Women: The Rise of Men. And the Whining of Girls, ESQUIRE, Sept. 2012, at 108, 110.
52. See Louise Loftus, E. U. Rape Data Pose Complex Challenge, INT'L HERALD TRIB., Oct. 25, 2011, at 10 ("Sweden, ranked fourth out of 134 countries in terms of gender equality in the World Economic Forum's 2010 gender gap report⋯ was also ranked fourth in the number of rape convictions per 100, 000 in 2006. But without additional information, it is not possible to explain this as an acute problem in Sweden or a result of better legislation, reporting, and prosecuting.").
53. Crime in the United States Table 1: Volume and Rate per 100, 000 Inhabitants, 1991-2010, FBI, http://www.fbi.gOv/about-us/cjis/ucr/crime-in-the- u.s/2010/crime-in-the-u.s.-201 0/tables/10tbl01.xls (last visited Feb. 18, 2013) (reporting that forcible rape fell from a rate of 42.3 per 100, 000 in 1991 to a rate of 32.0 in 2000, and fell again to a rate of 27.5 in 2010).
54. FBI, CRIME IN THE UNITED STATES: FORCIBLE RAPE 1(2011), available at www.fbi.gov/abou t-us/cjis/ucr/crime-in-the-u.s/2010/crime-in-the-u.s.-2010/ violent-crime/rapemain.pdf.
55. Charlie Savage, U. S. to Expand Its Definition of Rape in Statistics, N. Y. TIMES, Jan. 6, 2012, at A11.
56. Crime in the United States Table 5: By State, 2010, FBI, http://www.fbi.gov/aboutus/cjis/ucr/crime-in-the-u.s/2010/crime-in-the-u.s. -2010/tables/10tbl05.xls (last visited Mar. 2, 2013).
57. See Crime in the United States Table 6: By Metropolitan Statistical Area, 2010, FBI, http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/crime-in-the-u.s/2010/crime-in- the-u.s.-2010/tables/tab le-6/output.xls (last visited Mar. 2, 2013) (reporting the rate of forcible rape in various metropolitan areas).
58. See EUROPEAN SOURCEBOOK OF CRIME AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE STATISTICS - 2010, at 47 (4th ed. 2010) (reporting the median number of sexual assault offenses across forty-two European countries).
59. To the Point: Anti-American Protests; The 'End of Men' (KCRW radio broadcast Sept. 14, 2012), available at http://www.kcrw.com/news/programs/tp/ tpl20914anti-america n-protes.
60. (quoting Sam Tanenhaus, Violence That Art Didn't See Coming, N. Y. TIMES, Feb. 24, 2010, at AR1).
61. see also HOWARD N. SNYDER, BUREAU OF JUSTICE STATISTICS, ARREST IN THE UNITED STATES, 1980-2009, at 3-13(2011), http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/ aus8009.pdf (indicating that arrest rates for men and women converged for several crimes during the thirty year period at issue).
62. Juvenile Arrest Rate Trends, OFF. JUV. JUST. & DELINQUENCY PREVENTION, http://ww w.ojjdp. gov/ojstatbb/crime/JAR-Display.asp?ID= qa05232&text=yes (last visited Feb. 18, 2013) (indicating the decline in arrests of female juveniles from 0.9 per 100, 000 females in 1980 to 0.6 per 100, 000 females in 2010).
63. Criminal Victimization in the United States Table 38: Percent Distribution of Single-Offender Victimizations, by Type of Crime and Perceived Gender of Offender, 1996-2007, BUREAU JUST. STAT., http://www.bjs.gov/content/ pub/pdfcvus/previous/cvus38.pdf (last visited Mar. 2, 2013).
64. James Alan Fox & Marianne W. Zawitz, Homicide Trends in the United States, 1976-2005, BUREAU JUST. STAT. 54, http://bjs.ojp. usdoj.gov/content/pub/ pdf/htius.pdf (last visited Mar. 2, 2013) (reporting that 3295 women committed homicide in 1976, while 1826 women committed homicide in 2005).
65. Juvenile Arrest Rate Trends, supra note 112 (indicating a decline in arrests of female juveniles for murder).
66. See Ally Fogg, Has the Worm Really Turned? Reflections on the End of Men, Part 1, HETERONORMATIVE PATRIARCHY FOR MEN (Oct. 1, 2012), http://hetpat. wordpress.com/2012/10/01/has-the-worm-really-turned-reflections-on-the-end-of- men-part-l/ ("In the chapter on the supposed increase in female violence and aggression, Rosin states baldly that: 'A recent British study found that women were three times more likely to be arrested for domestic violence [than men].'⋯ I recognised the study she references - it found that where a woman is identified as the primary offender in an incident, her chances of being arrested are three times higher. That tells you something about arresting policies of police officers, but literally nothing nothing [sic] about the prevalence of female violence. (Actually, it's a bit more complicated than that, but never mind). In truth the study found that nine men are arrested for every one woman. When you know that so many claims in the book are unreliable, it becomes very difficult to trust anything Rosin says. That is frustrating, because had the research and statistics been reported accurately, the issues she wants to address would have been no less compelling"
67. MARIANNE HESTER, VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN RESEARCH GRP., UNIV. OF BRISTOL, WHO DOES WHAT TO WHOM? GENDER AND DOMESTIC VIOLENCE PERPETRATORS 9(2009), available at http://www.nr-foundation.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/Who- Does-What-to-Whom.pdf.
68. Intimate Partner Violence in the U. S.: Circumstances, BUREAU JUST. STAT., http://bjs. ojp. usdoj.gov/content/intimate/circumstances.cfm (last visited Feb. 18, 2013) (reporting average annual incidents of intimate partner violence in the United States).
69. BUREAU OF JUSTICE STATISTICS, U. S. DEP'T OF JUSTICE, FAMILY VIOLENCE STATISTICS, INCLUDING STATISTICS ON STRANGERS AND ACQUAINTANCES 13(2005), available at http://bj s.ojp. usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/fvs.pdf.
70. Ashley Parker, Day of Records and Firsts as 113th Congress Opens, N. Y. TIMES, Jan. 3, 2013, A11.
71. Women on Boards, CATALYST (Aug. 16, 2012), http://www.catalyst.org/ knowledge/w omen-boards.
72. For more details, see Philip N. Cohen, Who Knew? (Cuz Hanna Rosin Said So Edition), FAM. INEQUALITY (Oct. 7, 2012), http://familyinequality.wordpress. com/2012/10/0 7/who-knew-cuz-hanna-rosin-said-so-edition/ (rebutting Rosin's suggestion that women's progress in certain fields is novel).
73. ROBERT M. JACKSON, DESTINED FOR EQUALITY: THE INEVITABLE RISE OF WOMEN'S STATUS 241 (1998) ("Modern bureaucratic organizations such as businesses, political parties, and schools have little or no vested interest in preserving gender domination, so the general drift of social power from the patriarchal family to these faceless bureaucracies gives women the opening they need to battle successfully for more equal treatment.").
74. See SHARON H. MASTRACCI, BREAKING OUT OF THE PINK-COLLAR GHETTO: POLICY SOLUTIONS FOR NON-COLLEGE WOMEN 143-47 (2004) (asserting that women sometimes encounter hostile work environments in certain industries and identifying efforts to ameliorate those conditions).
75. (citing LOURIE WESSMAN LEBRENTON & SARA SEGAL LOEVY, BREAKING NEW GROUND: WORKSITE 2000 (1992)).
76. See William T. Bielby, Social Science Accounts of the Maternal Wall: Applications in Litigation Contexts, 26 T. JEFFERSON L. REV. 15, 17 (2003) ("More important than differences in the skills, aptitudes, and interests of men and women, employers are treating otherwise equally capable men and women differently based upon often unexamined assumptions about their respective qualifications.").
77. Stephen Benard & Shelley J. Correll, Normative Discrimination and the Motherhood Penalty, 24 GENDER & SOC'Y 616, 616 (2010) ("Mothers fare worse in the labor market than women without children and men. ").
78. See generally GAIL DINES, PORNLAND: HOW PORN HAS HIJACKED OUR SEXUALITY (2010) (discussing the negative impact sexualization and objectification has on modern women's self-esteem and idea of self-worth).
79. See Myra Marx Ferree, Filling the Glass: Gender Perspectives on Families, 72 J. MARRIAGE & FAM. 420, 431 (2010) (assessing certain effects of "income inequality in couples").
80. Liana C. Sayer, Gender, Time and Inequality: Trends in Women's and Men's Paid Work, Unpaid Work and Free Time, 84 SOC. FORCES 285, 292 (2005) (indicating that women perform more housework and assume more childcare responsibilities than men even as women increasingly perform paid work, but demonstrating that this gap is closing rapidly).
81. Youngjoo Cha, Reinforcing Separate Spheres: The Effect of Spousal Overwork on Men's and Women's Employment in Dual-Earner Households, 75 AM. SOC. REV. 303, 324 (2010) ("Findings provide strong evidence that long work hours contribute to gender inequality, and caregiving responsibility is the key condition generating unequal outcomes of spousal overwork for men and women. ").
82. JOAN C. WILLIAMS, RESHAPING THE WORK-FAMILY DEBATE: WHY MEN AND CLASS MATTER 91-103 (2010) ("Of all the triggers of stereotyping in today's workplace, motherhood triggers the strongest bias⋯. Separate-spheres imagery of selfless motherhood continues to structure social intuitions in ways that systematically disadvantage women at work.").
83. Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co., 550 U. S. 618, 642-43 (2007) (holding that a plaintiff suing under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act for gender pay discrimination must bring the action within 180 days of the pay decision and that this statute of limitations does not reset with each paycheck).
84. Vicky Lovell, Evaluating Policy Solutions to Sex-Based Pay Discrimination: Women Workers, Lawmakers, and Cultural Change, 9 U. MD. L. J. RACE RELIGION GENDER & CLASS 45, 53-59 (2009) (arguing that legislators have generally favored cautious but limited legislative remedies to equal-pay problems).
85. See Exec. Order No. 13535, 3 C. F. R. 201, 201 (2011) ("Following the recent enactment of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act⋯ it is necessary to establish an adequate enforcement mechanism to ensure that Federal funds are not used for abortion services (except in cases of rape or incest, or when the life of the woman would be endangered), consistent with a longstanding Federal statutory restriction that is commonly known as the Hyde Amendment.").
86. See Jackie Calmes, Obama Campaign Plans Big Effort to Court Women, N. Y. TIMES, Mar. 11, 2012, at A1 (discussing the Obama administration's threat to cut federal funding to Texas because the state blocked funding to Planned Parenthood);
87. Senate Confirms Appellate Judge, Rebuffing Critics, N. Y. TIMES, June 13, 2012, at A20 (discussing the appointment of Andrew Hurwitz to the Ninth Circuit despite conservative criticism that he "influenced the Roe v. Wade ruling on abortion" while a law clerk for District Court Judge Jon Newman, who "wrote two opinions that were the forerunners" of Roe).
88. See Janet C. Gornick & Marcia K. Meyers, Creating Gender Egalitarian Societies: An Agenda for Reform, 36 POL. & SOC'Y 313, 314 (2008) (proposing "a blueprint of institutional reforms that would support gender egalitarian caregiving" as a response to "the alleged tradeoffs among gender equality, family time, and child well-being").
89. Louis N. CHRISTOFIDES ET AL., INST, FOR THE STUDY OF LABOR, IZA DP No. 5044, THE GENDER WAGE GAPS, 'STICKY FLOORS' AND 'GLASS CEILINGS' OF THE EUROPEAN UNION 19(2010), available at http://ftp.iza.org/dp5044.pdf ("Generous policies concerning the reconciliation of work and family life also reduce the mean and median unexplained wage gaps.").
90. REBECCA RAY ET AL., CTR. FOR POLICY AND ECON. RESEARCH, PARENTAL LEAVE POLICIES IN 21 COUNTRIES: ASSESSING GENEROSITY AND GENDER EQUALITY 1 (2009) ("The United States is one of only two countries to offer no paid parental leave. Australia also offers no paid leave, but supports new parents with a substantial financial 'baby bonus' regardless of whether they take parental leave.").
91. OECD, CLOSING THE GENDER GAP: ACT NOW 212 (2012).
92. Greg J. Duncan et al., Reducing Poverty Through Preschool Interventions, 17 FUTURE CHILD. 143, 144-45 (2007) (arguing that "[c]hildren's early learning environments differ profoundly across lines of both race and class", and proposing that increased early childhood education "will reduce poverty in both the short and the long run").
93. Susan E. Fleck, International Comparisons of Hours Worked: An Assessment of the Statistics, 132 MONTHLY LAB. REV. 3, 31 (2009).
94. Average Annual Hours Actually Worked Per Worker, OECD, http://stats.oecd.org/Ind ex.aspx?DatasetCode=ANHRS (last visited Mar. 3, 2013) (reporting that U. S. workers worked more than workers in every surveyed country except Chile, Estonia, Greece, Hungary, Israel, Korea, Mexico, Poland, Russia, Slovakia, and Turkey).
95. See, e.g., Youngjoo Cha, Reinforcing Separate Spheres: The Effect of Spousal Overwork on Men's and Women's Employment in Dual-Earner Households, 75 AM. SOC. REV. 303, 303-04 (2010).
96. Jeanne Fagnani & Marie-Thérèse Letablier, Work and Family Life Balance: The Impact of the 35-Hour Laws in France, 18 WORK EMP. SOC'Y 551, 553 (2004) (examining "the French adoption of a 35-hour working week", a legislative measure imposed in part with the purpose "of improving equality between men and women");
97. Vicki Schultz & Allison Hoffman, The Need for a Reduced Workweek in the United States, in PRECARIOUS WORK, WOMEN, AND THE NEW ECONOMY: THE CHALLENGE TO LEGAL NORMS 139-51 (Judy Fudge & Rosemary Owens eds., 2006) ("Reducing the standard workweek would decrease the stress on all workers, provide a foundation for greater equality in working time between spouses or partners, and create a more level playing-field for single parents who are balancing wage-earning and family responsibilities.").
98. Elaine McCrate, Flexibility for Whom? Control over Work Schedule Variability in the US, 18 FEMINIST ECON. 39, 41 (2012).