Formation of Earth's Core

Treatise on Geophysics

Volumn 9, Issue , 2007, Pages 51-90

  Rubie, D C ^a   Nimmo, F ^b   Melosh, H J ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BAYREUTH   (Germany)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA   (United States)

Author keywords

Accretion; Differentiation; Element partitioning; High pressure; High temperature; Impacts; Light elements; Magma ocean; Planetary; Radioactive decay; Short lived isotopes; Siderophile elements

Indexed keywords

EID: 84882929142     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-044452748-6.00140-1     Document Type: Chapter

References (217)

1. Abe Y. Thermal and chemical evolution of the terrestrial magma ocean. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 1997, 100:27-39.
2. Agnor C., Asphaug E. Accretion efficiency during planetary collisions. Astrophysical Journal 2004, 613:L157-L160.
3. Agnor C.B., Canup R.M., Levison H.F. On the character and consequences of large impacts in the late stage of terrestrial planet formation. Icarus 1999, 142:219-237.
4. Alfe D., Gillan M.J., Price G.D. Composition and temperature of the Earth's core constrained by combining ab initio calculations and seismic data. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2002, 195:91-98.
5. Allegre C.J., Poirier J.-P., Humler E., Hofmann A.W. The chemical composition of the Earth. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 1995, 134:515-526.
6. Anders E., Grevesse N. Abundances of the elements: Meteoritic and solar. Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta 1989, 53:197-214.
7. Anderson O.L., Isaak D.G. Another look at the core density deficit of Earth's outer core. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 2002, 131:19-27.
8. Asahara Y., Frost D.J., Rubie D.C. Partitioning of FeO between magnesiowüstite and liquid iron at high pressures and temperatures: Implications for the composition of the Earth's outer core. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2007, 10.1016/j.epsl.2007.03.006.
9. Asphaug E., Agnor C.B., Williams Q. Hit-and-run planetary collisions. Nature 2006, 439:155-160.
10. Badro J., Fiquet G., Guyot F., et al. Effect of light elements on the sound velocities in solid iron: Implications for the composition of Earth's core. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2007, 254:233-238.
11. Baker J., Bizzarro M., Wittig N., Connelly J., Haack H. Early planetesimal melting from an age of 4.5662Gyr for differentiated meteorites. Nature 2005, 436:1127-1131.
12. Ballhaus C., Ellis D.J. Mobility of core melts during Earth's accretion. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 1996, 143:137-145.
13. Benz W., Cameron A.G.W. Terrestrial effects of the giant impact. Origin of the Earth 1990, 61-67. Oxford University Press, New York. H.E. Newsom, J.H. Jones (Eds.).
14. Benz W., Slattery W.L., Cameron A.G.W. Collisional stripping of Mercury's mantle. Icarus 1988, 74:516-528.
15. Birch F. Elasticity and constitution of the Earth's interior. Journal of Geophysical Research 1952, 69:227-286.
16. Blichert-Toft J., Gleason J.D., Télouk P., Albarède F. The Lu-Hf isotope geochemistry of shergottites and the evolution of the Martian mantle-crust system. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 1999, 173:25-39.
17. Boehler R. High-pressure experiments and the phase diagram of lower mantle and core materials. Reviews of Geophysics 2000, 38:221-245.
18. Borg L.E., Draper D.S. A petrogenetic model for the origin and compositional variation of the martian basaltic meteorites. Meteoritics and Planetary Science 2003, 38:1713-1731.
19. Bouhifd M.A., Jephcoat A.P. The effect of pressure on the partitioning of Ni and Co between silicate and iron-rich metal liquids: A diamond-anvil cell study. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2003, 209:245-255.
20. Boyet M., Carlson R.W. Nd-142 evidence for early (> 4.53 Ga) global differentiation of the silicate Earth. Science 2005, 309:576-581.
21. Brandon A.D., Walker R.J. The debate over core-mantle interaction. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2005, 232:211-225.
22. Bruhn D., Groebner N., Kohlstedt D.L. An interconnected network of core-forming melts produced by shear deformation. Nature 2000, 403:883-886.
23. Buffett B.A., Garnero E.J., Jeanloz R. Sediments at the top of Earth's core. Science 2000, 290:1338-1342.
24. Busso M., Gallino R., Wasserburg G.J. Nucleosynthesis in asymptotic giant branch stars: Relevance for galactic enrichment and solar system formation. Annual Reviews of Astronomy and Astrophysics 1999, 37:239-309.
25. Cameron A.G.W. High-resolution simulations of the giant impact. Origin of the Earth and Moon 2000, 133-144. University of Arizona Press, Tucson AZ. R.M. Canup, K. Righter (Eds.).
26. Canup R.M. Simulations of a late lunar-forming impact. Icarus 2004, 168:433-456.
27. Canup R.M., Asphaug E. Origin of the Moon in a giant impact near the end of the Earth′s formation. Nature 2001, 412:708-712.
28. Origin of the Earth and Moon 2000, University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. R.M. Canup, K. Righter (Eds.).
29. Canup R.M., Ward W.R., Cameron A.G.W. A scaling relationship for satellite-forming impacts. Icarus 2001, 150:288-296.
30. Caro G., Bourdon B., Wood B.J., Corgne A. Trace-element fractionation in Hadean mantle generated by melt segregation from a magma ocean. Nature 2005, 436:246-249.
31. Chabot N.L., Agee C.B. Core formation in the Earth and Moon: New experimental constraints from V, Cr, and Mn. Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta 2003, 67:2077-2091.
32. Chabot N.L., Draper D.S., Agee C.B. Conditions of core formation in the Earth: Constraints from Nickel and Cobalt partitioning. Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta 2005, 69:2141-2151.
33. Chabot N.L., Haack H. Evolution of asteroidal cores. Meteorites and the Early Solar System 2006, 747-771. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. D.S. Lauretta, H.Y. McSween (Eds.).
34. Chamberlin T.C. The Origin of the Earth 1916, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 271 pp.
35. Chambers J.E. Planet formation. Treatise on Geochemistry, Vol. 1: Meteorites, Planets and Comets 2003, 461-475. Elsevier-Pergamon, Oxford. A.M. Davis (Ed.).
36. Chambers J.E., Wetherill G.W. Making the terrestrial planets: N-body integrations of planetary embryos in three dimensions. Icarus 1998, 136:304-327.
37. Clayton R.N., Mayeda T.K. Oxygen isotope studies of achondrites. Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta 1996, 60:1999-2017.
38. Cottrell E., Walker D. Constraints on core formation from Pt partitioning in mafic silicate liquids at high temperatures. Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta 2006, 70:1565-1580.
39. Dalziel S.B., Linden P.F., Youngs D.L. Self-similarity and internal structure of turbulence induced by Rayleigh-Taylor instability. Journal of Fluid Mechanics 1999, 399:1-48.
40. Drake M.J. The eucrite/Vesta story. Meteoritics and Planetary Science 2001, 36:501-513.
41. Drake M.J., Righter K. Determining the composition of the Earth. Nature 2002, 416:39-44.
42. Dreibus G., Palme H. Cosmochemical constraints on the sulfur content in the Earth's core. Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta 1996, 60:1125-1130.
43. Elkins-Tanton L.T., Parmentier E.M., Hess P.C. Magma ocean fractional crystallization and cumulate overturn in terrestrial planets: Implications for Mars. Meteoritics and Planetary Science 2003, 38:1753-1771.
44. Elsasser W.M. Early history of the earth. Earth Science and Meteoritics 1963, 1-30. North-Holland, Amsterdam. J. Geiss, E.D. Goldberg (Eds.).
45. Ertel W., O'Neill H.S.C., Sylvester P.J., Dingwell D.B. Solubilities of Pt and Rh in a haplobasaltic silicate melt at 1300°C. Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta 1999, 63:2439-2449.
46. Ertel W., O'Neill H.S.C., Sylvester P.J., Dingwell D.B., Spettel B. The solubility of rhenium in silicate melts. Implications for the geochemical properties of rhenium at high temperatures. Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta 2001, 65:2161-2170.
47. Ertel W., Walter M.J., Drake M.J., Sylvester P.J. Experimental study of platinum solubility in silicate melt to 14GPa and 2273K: Implications for accretion and core formation in the Earth. Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta 2006, 70:2591-2602.
48. Faul U.H. Permeability of partially molten upper mantle rocks from experiments and percolation theory. Journal of Geophysical Research 1997, 102:10299-10312. 10.1029/96JB03460.
49. Fortenfant S.S., Dingwell D.B., Ertel-Ingrisch W., Capmas F., Birck J.L., Dalpé C. Oxygen fugacity dependence of Os solubility in haplobasaltic melt. Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta 2006, 70:742-756.
50. Fortenfant S.S., Günther D., Dingwell D.B., Rubie D.C. Temperature dependence of Pt and Rh solubilities in a haplobasaltic melt. Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta 2003, 67:123-131.
51. Fortenfant S.S., Rubie D.C., Reid J., Dalpé C., Gessmann C.K. Partitioning of Re and Os between liquid metal and magnesiowüstite at high pressure. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 2003, 139:77-91.
52. Frost D.J., Liebske C., Langenhorst F., McCammon C.A., Trønnes R.G., Rubie D.C. Experimental evidence for the existence of iron-rich metal in the Earth′s lower mantle. Nature 2004, 428:409-412.
53. Gaetani G.A., Grove T.L. Wetting of mantle olivine by sulfide melt: Implications for Re/Os ratios in mantle peridotite and late-stage core formation. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 1999, 169:147-163.
54. Gancarz A.J., Wasserburg G.J. Initial Pb of the Amîtsoq gneiss, west Greenland, and implications for the age of the Earth. Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta 1977, 41(9):1283-1301.
55. Gessmann C.K., Rubie D.C. The effect of temperature on the partitioning of Ni, Co, Mn, Cr and V at 9GPa and constraints on formation of the Earth's core. Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta 1998, 62:867-882.
56. Gessmann C.K., Rubie D.C. The origin of the depletions of V, Cr and Mn in the mantles of the Earth and Moon. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2000, 184:95-107.
57. Gessmann C.K., Wood B.J., Rubie D.C., Kilburn M.R. Solubility of silicon in liquid metal at high pressure: Implications for the composition of the Earth′s core. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2001, 184:367-376.
58. Ghosh A., McSween H.Y. A thermal model for the differentiation of Asteroid 4 Vesta, based on radiogenic heating. Icarus 1998, 134:187-206.
59. Greenwood R.C., Franchi I.A., Jambon A., Buchanan P.C. Widespread magma oceans on asteroid bodies in the early solar system. Nature 2005, 435:916-918. 10.1038/nature03612.
60. Grimm R.E., McSween H.Y. Heliocentric zoning of the asteroid belt by aluminum-26 heating. Science 1993, 259:653-655.
61. Groebner N., Kohlstedt D.L. Deformation-induced metal melt networks in silicates: Implications for core-mantle interactions in planetary bodies. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2006, 245:571-580.
62. Haisch K.E., Lada E.A., Lada C.J. Disk frequencies and lifetimes in young clusters. Astronomical Journal 2001, 553:L153-L156.
63. Halliday A.N. The origin and earliest history of the Earth. Treatise on Geochemistry 2003, vol. 1:509-557. Elsevier, Amsterdam. H.D. Holland, K.K. Turekian (Eds.).
64. Halliday A.N. Mixing, volatile loss and compositional change during impact-driven accretion of the Earth. Nature 2004, 427:505-509.
65. Hallworth M.A., Phillips J.C., Hubbert H.E., Sparks R.S.J. Entrainment in turbulent gravity currents. Nature 1993, 362:829-831.
66. Hanks T.C., Anderson D.L. The early thermal history of the Earth. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 1969, 2:19-29.
67. Harper C.L., Jacobsen S.B. Evidence for Hf-182 in the early solar system and constraints on the timescale of terrestrial accretion and core formation. Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta 1996, 60:1131-1153.
68. Helffrich G., Kaneshima S. Seismological constraints on core composition from Fe-O-S liquid immiscibility. Science 2004, 306:2239-2242.
69. Herd C.D.K., Borg L.E., Jones J.H., Papike J.J. Oxygen fugacity and geochemical variations in the martian basalts: Implications for Martian basalt petrogenesis and the oxidation state of the upper mantle of Mars. Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta 2002, 66:2025-2036.
70. Hillgren V.J., Drake M.J., Rubie D.C. High-pressure and high-temperature experiments on core-mantle segregation in the accreting Earth. Science 1994, 264:1442-1445.
71. Hillgren V.J., Gessmann C.K., Li J. An experimental perspective on the light element in Earth′s core. Origin of the Earth and Moon 2000, 245-264. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. R.M. Canup, K. Righter (Eds.).
72. Höink T., Schmalzl J., Hansen U. Dynamics of metal-silicate separation in a terrestrial magma ocean. Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 2006, 7:Q09008. 10.1029/2006GC001268.
73. Holzheid A., Schmitz M.D., Grove T.L. Textural equilibria of iron sulphide liquids in partly molten silicate aggregates and their relevance to core formation scenarios. Journal of Geophysical Research 2000, 105:13555-13567.
74. Holzheid A., Sylvester P., O'Neill H.S.C., Rubie D.C., Palme H. Evidence for a late chondritic veneer in the Earth's mantle from high-pressure partitioning of palladium and platinum. Nature 2000, 406:396-399.
75. Hustoft J.W., Kohlstedt D.L. Metal-silicate segregation in deforming dunitic rocks. Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 2006, 7:Q02001. 10.1029/2005GC001048.
76. Iida T., Guthrie R.L. The Physical Properties of Liquid Metals 1988, Clarendon, Oxford, pp. 109-146.
77. Jacobsen S.B. The Hf-W isotopic system and the origin of the Earth and Moon. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 2005, 33:531-570.
78. Jeffreys H. The Earth 1952, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 3rd edn.
79. Jephcoat A., Olson P. Is the inner core of the Earth pure iron?. Nature 1987, 325:332-335.
80. Jones J.H., Capobianco C.J., Drake M.J. Siderophile elements and the Earth's formation. Science 1992, 257:1281-1282.
81. Jones J.H., Drake M.J. Geochemical constraints on core formation in the Earth. Nature 1986, 322:221-228.
82. Jones J.H., Neal C.R., Ely J.C. Signatures of the siderophile elements in the SNC meteorites and Mars: A review and petrologic synthesis. Chemical Geology 2003, 196:21-41.
83. Kanda R., Stevenson D.J. Suction mechanism for iron entrainment into the lower mantle. Geophysical Research Letters 2006, 33:L02310. 10.1029/2005GL025009.
84. Karato S.I., Murthy V.R. Core formation and chemical equilibrium in the Earth. Part I: Physical considerations. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 1997, 100:61-79.
85. Kato T., Ringwood A.E. Melting relationships in the system Fe-FeO at high pressure: Implications for the composition and formation of the Earth's core. Physics and Chemistry of Minerals 1989, 16:524-538.
86. Kaula W.M. Thermal evolution of the Earth and Moon growing by planetesimal impacts. Journal of Geophysical Research 1979, 84:999-1008.
87. Kegler P, Holzheid A, Rubie DC, Frost DJ, and Palme H (2005) New results of metal/silicate partitioning of Ni and Co at elevated pressures and temperatures. XXXVI Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, Abstract #2030.
88. Keil K., Stoeffler D., Love S.G., Scott E.R.D. Constraints on the role of impact heating and melting in asteroids. Meteoritics and Planetary Science 1997, 32:349-363.
89. Keppler H., Rubie D.C. Pressure-induced coordination changes of transition-metal ions in silicate melts. Nature 1993, 364:54-55.
90. Kilburn M.R., Wood B.J. Metal-silicate partitioning and the incompatibility of S and Si during core formation. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 1997, 152:139-148.
91. Kimura K., Lewis R.S., Anders E. Distribution of gold between nickel-iron and silicate melts: Implications for the abundances of siderophile elements on the Earth and Moon. Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta 1974, 38:683-701.
92. Kleine T., Palme H., Mezger M., Halliday A.N. Hf-W chronometry of lunar metals and the age and early differentiation of the Moon. Science 2005, 310:1671-1673.
93. Kleine T., Munker C., Mezger K., Palme H. Rapid accretion and early core formation on asteroids and the terrestrial planets from Hf-W chronometry. Nature 2002, 418:952-955.
94. Kokubo E., Ida S. Oligarchic growth of protoplanets. Icarus 1998, 131:171-178.
95. Kominami J., Tanaka H., Ida S. Orbital evolution and accretion of protoplanets tidally interacting with a gas disk. Part I: Effects of interaction with planetesimals and other protoplanets. Icarus 2005, 178:540-552.
96. Kong P., Ebihara M., Palme H. Siderophile elements in Martian meteorites and implications for core formation in Mars. Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta 1999, 63:1865-1875.
97. Kyte F.T. A meteorite from the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary. Nature 1998, 396:237-239.
98. Laporte D., Watson E.B. Experimental and theoretical constraints on melt distribution in crustal sources: The effect of crystalline anisotropy on melt interconnectivity. Chemical Geology 1995, 124:161-184.
99. Li J., Agee C.B. Geochemistry of mantle-core differentiation at high pressure. Nature 1996, 381:686-689.
100. Li J., Agee C.B. The effect of pressure, temperature, oxygen fugacity and composition on partitioning of nickel and cobalt between liquid Fe-Ni-S alloy and liquid silicate: Implications for the Earth′s core formation. Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta 2001, 65:1821-1832.
101. Li J., Fei Y. Experimental constraints on core composition. Treatise on Geochemistry, vol. 2: The Mantle and Core 2003, 521-546. Elsevier-Pergamon, Oxford. H.D. Holland, K.K. Turekian (Eds.).
102. Liebske C., Schmickler B., Terasaki H., et al. Viscosity of peridotite liquid up to 13GPa: Implications for magma ocean viscosities. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2005, 240:589-604.
103. Lindstrom D.J., Jones J.H. Neutron activation analysis of multiple 10-100μg glass samples from siderophile element partitioning experiments. Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta 1996, 60:1195-1203.
104. Lodders K., Fegley B. The Planetary Scientist's Companion 1998, Oxford University Press, New York.
105. Maier W.D., Andreoli M.A.G., McDonald I., et al. Discovery of a 25-cm asteroid clast in the giant Morokweng impact crater, South Africa. Nature 2006, 441:203-206.
106. Malavergne V., Siebert J., Guyot F., et al. Si in the core? New high-pressure and high-temperature experimental data. Geochimica et Cosmochemica Acta 2004, 68:4201-4211.
107. Mann U, Frost DJ, Rubie DC, Shearer CK, and Agee CB (2006) Is silicon a light element in Earth's core? - Constraints from liquid metal - liquid silicate partitioning of some lithophile elements. XXXVII Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, Abstract #1161.
108. Matsui T., Abe Y. Impact-induced atmospheres and oceans on Earth and Venus. Nature 1986, 322:526-528.
109. McDonough W.F. Compositional model for the Earth′s core. Treatise on Geochemistry 2003, 517-568. Elsevier, Oxford. H.D. Holland, K.K. Turekian (Eds.).
110. McDonough W.F., Sun S.-S. The composition of the Earth. Chemical Geology 1995, 120:223-253.
111. McSween H.Y. Meteorites and Their Parent Planets 1999, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
112. Melosh H.J. Giant impacts and the thermal state of the early Earth. Origin of the Earth 1990, 69-83. Oxford University Press, Oxford. N.E. Newsom, J.E. Jones (Eds.).
113. Melosh HJ and Rubie DC (2007) Ni partitioning in the terrestrial magma ocean: A polybaric numerical model. Lunar and Planetary Science XXXVIII Abstract #1593.
114. Miller G.H., Stolper E.M., Ahrens T.J. The equation of state of a molten komatiite. Part 2: Application to komatiite petrogenesis and the Hadean mantle. Journal of Geophysical Research 1991, 96:11849-11864.
115. Minarik W.G., Ryerson F.J., Watson E.B. Textural entrapment of core-forming melts. Science 1996, 272:530-533.
116. Morbidelli A., Chambers J., Lunine J.I., et al. Source regions and timescales for the delivery of water to the Earth. Meteoritics and Planetary Science 2000, 35:1309-1320.
117. Morgan J.W. Ultramafic xenoliths: Clues to Earth's late accretionary history. Journal of Geophysical Research 1986, 91:12375-12387.
118. Mosenfelder JL, Asimow PD, and Ahrens TJ (2007) Thermodynamic properties of Mg2SiO4 liquid at ultra-high pressures from shock measurements to 200GPa on forsterite and wadsleyite. Journal of Geophysical Research (in press).
119. Murthy V.R. Early differentiation of the Earth and the problem of mantle siderophile elements - A new approach. Science 1991, 253:303-306.
120. Nimmo F., Agnor C.B. Isotopic outcomes of N-body accretion simulations: Constraints on equilibration processes during large impacts from Hf-W observations. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2006, 243:26-43.
121. Ohtani E., Ringwood A.E. Composition of the core. Part I: Solubility of oxygen in molten iron at high temperatures. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 1984, 71:85-93.
122. Ohtani E., Ringwood A.E., Hibberson W. Composition of the core. Part II: Effect of high pressure on solubility of FeO in molten iron. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 1984, 71:94-103.
123. Ohtani E., Yurimoto H. Element partitioning between metallic liquid, magnesiowüstite, and silicate liquid at 20GPa and 2500°C: A secondary ion mass spectrometric study. Geophysical Research Letters 1996, 23:1993-1996.
124. O'Neill H.S.C. Siderophile elements and the Earth's formation. Science 1992, 257:1282-1284.
125. O'Neill H.S.C., Canil D., Rubie D.C. Oxide-metal equilibria to 2500°C and 25GPa: Implications for core formation and the light component in the Earth's core. Journal of Geophysical Research 1998, 103:12239-12260.
126. O'Neill H.S.C., Palme H. Composition of the silicate Earth: Implications for accretion and core formation. The Earth's Mantle 1998, 3-126. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. I. Jackson (Ed.).
127. Newsom H.E. Accretion and core formation in the Earth: Evidence from siderophile elements. Origin of the Earth 1990, 273-288. Oxford University Press, New York. H.E. Newsom, J.H. Jones (Eds.).
128. Palme H., O'Neill H.S.C. Cosmochemical estimates of mantle composition. Treatise on Geochemistry, vol. 2: The Mantle and Core 2003, 1-38. Elsevier-Pergamon, Oxford. H.D. Holland, K.K. Turekian (Eds.).
129. Palme H, O'Neill H, St. C, and Benz W (2003) Evidence for collisional erosion of the Earth. XXXIV Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, Abstract #1741.
130. Pierazzo E., Vickery A.M., Melosh H.J. A re-evaluation of impact melt production. Icarus 1997, 127:408-432.
131. Poirier J.P. Light elements in the Earth's outer core: A critical review. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 1994, 85:319-337.
132. Poirier J.P., Malavergne V., Le Mouël J.L. Is there a thin electrically conducting layer at the base of the mantle?. Geodynamics 28: The Core-Mantle Boundary Region 1998, 131-137. American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC. M. Gurnis, M.E. Wysession, E. Knittle, B.A. Buffett (Eds.).
133. Porcelli D., Woolum D., Cassen P. Deep Earth rare gases: Initial inventories, capture from the solar nebula, and losses during Moon formation. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2001, 193:237-251.
134. Pritchard M.E., Stevenson D.J. Thermal aspects of a lunar origin by giant impact. Origin of the Earth and Moon 2000, 179-196. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. R.M. Canum, K. Righter (Eds.).
135. Quitté G, Latkoczy C, Halliday AN, Schönbächler M, and Günther D (2005) Iron-60 in the Eucrite parent body and the initial 60Fe/56Fe of the solar system. LPSC XXXVI, Abstract 1827.
136. Ranen M.C., Jacobsen S.B. Barium isotopes in chondritic meteorites: Implications for planetary reservoir models. Science 2006, 314:809-812.
137. Raymond S.N., Quinn T., Lunine J.I. Making other Earths: Dynamical simulations of terrestrial planet formation and water delivery. Icarus 2004, 168:1-17.
138. 6 liquid at pressures up to 13GPa. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 2003, 139:45-54.
139. Righter K. Metal-silicate partitioning of siderophile elements and core formation in the early Earth. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 2003, 31:135-174.
140. Righter K. Highly siderophile elements: Constraints on Earth accretion and early differentiation. Geophysical Monograph 160: Earth's Deep Mantle: Structure, Composition and Evolution 2005, 201-218. American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC. R.D. van der Hilst, J.D. Bass, J. Matas, J. Trampert (Eds.).
141. Righter K., Drake M.J. Core Formation in Earth's Moon, Mars, and Vesta. Icarus 1996, 124:513-529.
142. Righter K., Drake M.J. Metal-silicate equilibrium in a homogeneously accreting Earth: New results for Re. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 1997, 146:541-553.
143. Righter K., Drake M.J. Effect of water on metal-silicate partitioning of siderophile elements: A high pressure and temperature terrestrial magma ocean and core formation. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 1999, 171:383-399.
144. Righter K., Drake M.J. Metal-silicate equilibration in the early Earth: New constraints from volatile moderately siderophile elements Ga, Sn, Cu and P. Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta 2000, 64:3581-3597.
145. Righter K., Drake M.J. Constraints on the depth of an early terrestrial magma ocean. Meteoritics and Planetary Science 2001, 36:A173.
146. Righter K., Drake M.J. Partition coefficients at high pressure and temperature. Treatise on Geochemistry 2003, vol. 2:425-449. Elsevier, Oxford. R.W. Carlson (Ed.).
147. Righter K., Drake M.J., Yaxley G. Prediction of siderophile element metal-silicate partition coefficients to 20GPa and 2800 degrees C: The effects of pressure, temperature, oxygen fugacity, and silicate and metallic melt compositions. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 1997, 100:115-134.
148. Ringwood A.E. Composition of the core and implications for the origin of the Earth. Geochemical Journal 1977, 11:111-135.
149. Rose L.A., Brenan J.M. Wetting properties of Fe-Ni-Co-Cu-O-S melts against olivine: Implications for sulfide melt mobility. Economic Geology and Bulletin of the Society of Economics Geologists 2001, 96:145-157.
150. Rubie D.C., Gessmann C.K., Frost D.J. Partitioning of oxygen during core formation on the Earth and Mars. Nature 2004, 429:58-61.
151. Rubie D.C., Melosh H.J., Reid J.E., Liebske C., Righter K. Mechanisms of metal-silicate equilibration in the terrestrial magma ocean. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2003, 205:239-255.
152. Rubin A.M. Propagation of magma-filled cracks. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 1995, 23:287-336.
153. Rushmer T., Minarik W.G., Taylor G.J. Physical processes of core formation. Origin of the Earth and Moon 2000, 227-244. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. R.M. Canup, K. Righter (Eds.).
154. Rushmer T., Petford N., Humayun M., Campbell A.J. Fe-liquid segregation in deforming planetesimals: Coupling core-forming compositions with transport phenomena. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2005, 239:185-202.
155. Russell C.T., Luhmann J.G. Mercury: Magnetic field and magnetosphere. Encyclopedia of Planetary Sciences 1997, 476-478. Chapman and Hall, New York. J.H. Shirley, R.W. Fairbridge (Eds.).
156. Ruzicka A., Snyder G.A., Taylor L.A. Vesta as the howardite, eucrite and diogenite parent body: Implications for the size of a core and for large-scale differentiation. Meteoritics and Planetary Science 1997, 32:825-840.
157. Safronov V.S. The heating of the Earth during its formation. Icarus 1978, 33:1-12.
158. Sakai T., Kanto T., Ohtani E., et al. Interaction between iron and post-perovskite at core-mantle boundary and core signature in plume source region. Geophysical Research Letters 2006, 33:L15317. 10.1029/2006GL026868.
159. Scherstén A., Elliott T., Hawkesworth C., Russell S., Massarik J. Hf-W evidence for rapid differentiation of iron meteorite parent bodies. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2006, 241:530-542.
160. Schmickler B., Liebske C., Holzapfel C., Rubie D.C. Viscosity of peridotite liquid up to 24GPa: Predictions from self-diffusion coefficients. EOS Transactions American Geophysical Union 2005, 86(52). Fall Meeting Supplement, Abstract MR11A-06.
161. Schoenberg R., Kamber B.S., Collerson K.D., Eugster O. New W-isotope evidence for rapid terrestrial accretion and very early core formation. Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta 2002, 66:3151-3160.
162. 26Al in the early solar system. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 1970, 10:44-59.
163. Schubert G., Anderson J.D., Spohn T., McKinnon W.B. Interior composition, structure and dynamics of the Galilean satellites. Jupiter: The Planet, Satellites and Magnetosphere 2004, 281-306. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. F. Bagenal, T. Dowling, W.B. Mckinnon (Eds.).
164. Shannon M.C., Agee C.B. High pressure constraints on percolative core formation. Geophysical Research Letters 1996, 23:2717-2720.
165. Shannon M.C., Agee C.B. Percolation of core melts at lower mantle conditions. Science 1998, 280:1059-1061.
166. Snow J.E., Schmidt G. Constraints on Earth accretion deduced from noble metals in the oceanic mantle. Nature 1998, 391:166-169.
167. Solomatov V.S. Fluid dynamics of a terrestrial magma ocean. Origin of the Earth and Moon 2000, 323-338. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. R.M. Canup, K. Righter (Eds.).
168. Solomon S. Formation, history and energetics of cores in the terrestrial planets. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 1979, 19:168-182.
169. Spohn T., Schubert G. Thermal equilibration of the Earth following a giant impact. Geophysical Journal International 1991, 107:163-170.
170. Stevenson D.J. Models of the Earth's core. Science 1981, 214:611-619.
171. Stevenson D.J. Formation and early evolution of the Earth. Mantle Convection plate tectonics and global dynamics 1989, 817-873. Gordon and Breach, New York. W.R. Peltier (Ed.).
172. Stevenson D.J. Fluid dynamics of core formation. Origin of the Earth 1990, 231-250. Oxford University Press, New York. H.E. Newsom, J.H. Jones (Eds.).
173. Stevenson D.J. Mission to the Earth's core - A modest proposal. Nature 2003, 423:239-240.
174. Tachibana S., Huss G.R., Kita N.T., Shimoda G., Morishita Y. Fe-60 in chondrites: Debris from a nearby supernova in the early solar system?. Astrophysical Journal 2006, 639:L87-L90.
175. Taylor S.R., Norman M.D. Accretion of differentiated planetesimals to the Earth. Origin of the Earth 1990, 29-43. Oxford University Press, New York. H.E. Newsom, J.H. Jones (Eds.).
176. 3 perovskite and the light elements in the core. Geophysical Research Letters 2005, 32:L06313. 10.1029/2005GLO22773.
177. Takafuji N., Hirose K., Ono S., Xu F., Mitome M., Bando Y. Segregation of core melts by permeable flow in the lower mantle. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2004, 224:249-257.
178. Terasaki H., Frost D.J., Rubie D.C., Langenhorst F. The effect of oxygen and sulphur on the dihedral angle between Fe-O-S melt and silicate minerals at high pressure: Implications for Martian core formation. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2005, 232:379-392. 10.1016/j.epsl.2005.01.030.
179. Terasaki H, Frost DJ, Rubie DC, and Langenhorst F (2007a) Percolative core formation in planetesimals. Earth and Planetary Science Letters (in press).
180. Terasaki H, Frost DJ, Rubie DC, and Langenhorst F (2007b) The interconnectivity of Fe-O-S liquid in polycrystalline silicate perovskite at lower mantle conditions. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors (in press).
181. Thibault Y., Walter M.J. The influence of pressure and temperature on the metal-silicate partition coefficients of nickel and cobalt in a model C1 chondrite and implications for metal segregation in a deep magma ocean. Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta 1995, 59:991-1002.
182. Thomas P.C., Parker J.W., McFadden L.A., et al. Differentiation of the asteroid Ceres as revealed by its shape. Nature 2005, 437:224-226.
183. Thomson W., Tait P.G. Treatise on Natural Philosophy 1883, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 527 p.
184. Tonks W.B., Melosh H.J. Core formation by giant impacts. Icarus 1992, 100:326-346.
185. Tonks W.B., Melosh H.J. Magma ocean formation due to giant impacts. Journal of Geophysical Research 1993, 98:5319-5333.
186. Treiman A.H., Jones J.H., Drake M.J. Core formation in the Shergottite parent body and comparison with the Earth. Journal of Geophysical
187. Tschauner O., Zerr A., Specht S., Rocholl A., Boehler R., Palme H. Partitioning of nickel and cobalt between silicate perovskite and metal at pressures up to 80GPa. Nature 1999, 398:604-607. 10.1038/19287.
188. Turan J.W. Nucleosynthesis. Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 1984, 34:53-97.
189. Turcotte D.L., Schubert G. Geodynamics 2002, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
190. Urey H.C. The Planets: Their Origin and Development 1952, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, 245 pp.
191. von Bargen N., Waff H.S. Permeabilities, interfacial areas and curvatures of partially molten systems: Results of numerical computations of equilibrium microstructures. Journal of Geophysical Research 1986, 91:9261-9276.
192. Wade J., Wood B.J. Core formation and the oxidation state of the Earth. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2005, 236:78-95.
193. Wadhwa M. Redox state of Mars' upper mantle and crust from Eu anomalies in Shergottite pyroxenes. Science 2001, 291:1527-1530.
194. Walker D. Core participation in mantle geochemistry: Geochemical Society Ingerson Lecture. Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta 2000, 64:2897-2911.
195. Walker D. Core-mantle chemical issues. Canadean Mineralogist 2005, 43:1553-1564.
196. Walker D., Norby L., Jones J.H. Superheating effects on metal-silicate partitioning of siderophile elements. Science 1993, 262:1858-1861.
197. Walte NP, Becker JK, Bons PD, Rubie DC, and Frost DJ (2007) Liquid distribution and attainment of textural equilibrium in a partially-molten crystalline system with a high-dihedral-angle liquid phase. Earth and Planetary Science Letters (in press).
198. Walter M.J., Newsom H.E., Ertel W., Holzheid A. Siderophile elements in the Earth and Moon: Metal/silicate partitioning and implications for core formation. Origin of the Earth and Moon 2000, 265-290. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. R.M. Canup, K. Righter (Eds.).
199. Walter M.J., Thibault Y. Partitioning of tungsten and molybdenum between metallic liquid and silicate melt. Science 1995, 270:1186-1189.
200. Walter M.J., Trønnes R.G. Early Earth differentiation. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2004, 225:253-269.
201. Warren P.H. The magma ocean concept and lunar evolution. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 1985, 13:201-240.
202. Warren P.H. A concise compilation of petrologic information on possible pristine nonmare Moon rocks. American Mineralogist 1993, 78:360-376.
203. Warren P.H., Kallemeyn G.W., Kyte F.T. Origin of planetary cores: Evidence from highly siderophile elements in Martian meteorities. Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta 1999, 63:2105-2122.
204. Wasson J.T. Meteorites: Their Record of Early Solar-System History 1985, W. H. Freeman, New York, 267 pp.
205. Weidenschilling S.J., Spaute D., Davis D.R., Marzari F., Ohtsuki K. Accretional evolution of a planetesimal swarm. Part 2: The terrestrial zone. Icarus 1997, 128:429-455.
206. Wetherill G.W. Occurrence of giant impacts during the growth of the terrestrial planets. Science 1985, 228:877-879.
207. Wetherill G.W. Formation of the Earth. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 1990, 18:205-256.
208. Wetherill G.W., Stewart G.R. Formation of planetary embryos - Effects of fragmentation, low relative velocity, and independent variation of eccentricity and inclination. Icarus 1993, 106:190-209.
209. Williams J.-P., Nimmo F. Thermal evolution of the Martian core: Implications for an early dynamo. Geology 2004, 32:97-100.
210. Williams Q., Hemley R.J. Hydrogen in the deep Earth. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 2001, 29:365-418.
211. Wood B.J., Halliday A.N. Cooling of the Earth and core formation after the giant impact. Nature 2005, 437:1345-1348.
212. Wood B.J., Walter M.J., Wade J. Accretion of the Earth and segregation of its core. Nature 2006, 441:825-833. 10.1038/nature04763.
213. Yin Q.Z., Jacobsen S.B., Yamashita K., Blichert-Toft J., Telouk P., Albarede F. A short timescale for terrestrial planet formation from Hf-W chronometry of meteorites. Nature 2002, 418:949-952.
214. Yoder C.F. Astrometric and geodetic properties of Earth and the solar system. Global Earth Physics 1995, 1-31. American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC. T.J. Ahrens (Ed.).
215. Yoshino T., Price J.D., Wark D.A., Watson E.B. Effect of faceting on pore geometry in texturally equilibrated rocks: Implications for low permeability at low porosity. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 2006, 152:169-186. 10.1007/s00410-006-0099-y.
216. Yoshino T., Walter M.J., Katsura T. Core formation in planetesimals triggered by permeable flow. Nature 2003, 422:154-157.
217. Young G.A. The Physics of the Base Surge 1965, Naval Ordnance Laboratory, US White Oak, MD.