A macro-micro integrated theoretical model of mass participation in genocide

British Journal of Criminology

Volumn 53, Issue 5, 2013, Pages 843-863

  Olusanya, Olaoluwa ^a  

^a ABERYSTWYTH UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Cognitive dissonance.; Genocide; Macro micro theoretical integration

Indexed keywords

EID: 84882427427     PISSN: 00070955     EISSN: 14643529     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/bjc/azt027     Document Type: Article

References (124)

1. Agnew, R. (1995), 'The Contribution of Social-Psychological Strain Theory to the Explanation of Crime and Delinquency', in F. Adler and W. S. Laufer, eds, The Legacy of Anomie Theory, 113-37. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
2. - (1998), 'The Approval of Suicide: A Social-Psychological Model', Suicide and Life- Threatening Behavior, 28: 205-25.
3. Akers, R. L. (1998), Social Learning and Social Structure: A General Theory of Crime and Deviance. Boston: Northeastern University Press.
4. Akers, R. L. and Jensen, G. F. (2006), 'The Empirical Status of Social Learning Theory of Crime and Deviance: The Past, Present, and Future', in F. T. Cullen, J. P. Wright and K. R. Blevins, eds, Taking Stock: The Status of Criminological Theory, 37-76. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishing, available online at http://sitemason.vanderbilt.edu/files/l/l3Bguk/ Empirical%20Status%20of%20Social%20Learning%20Theory%20of%20 Crime%20and%20Deviance.pdf.
5. Alvarez, A. (2001), Governments, Citizens, and Genocide: A Comparative and Interdisciplinary Analysis. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
6. - (2002), 'Justifying Genocide: The Role of Professionals in Legitimizing Mass Killing', IDEA: A Journal of Social Issues, 6, available online at www.ideajournal.com/articles.php?sup=10.
7. Arendt, H. (1963), Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil. New York: The Viking Press.
8. ARTIS Report (2009), Theoretical Frames on pathways to Violent Radicalization: Understanding the Evolution of Ideas and Behaviors, How They Interact and How They Describe Pathways to Violence in Marginalized Diaspora, Report to the Office of Naval Research, August 2009, available online at www.artisresearch.com/articles/ARTIS-Theoretical-Frames-August-2009.pdf.
9. Bal, M. (1999), 'Narrative Inside Out: Louise Bourgeois's Spider as Theoretical Object', Oxford Art Journal, 22: 103-26.
10. Bandura, A., Caprara, G. V., Barbaranelli, C., Pastorelli, C. and Regalia, C. (2001), 'Sociocognitive Self-Regulatory Mechanisms Governing Transgressive Behavior', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80: 125-35.
11. Barbu, Z. (1956), Democracy and Dictatorship: Their Psychology and Patterns of Life. London: New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
12. Barkow, J. H., Cosmides, L. and Tooby, J. (1987), The Adapted Mind. New York: Oxford University Press.
13. Battiste, L. F. (2005), 'The Case for Intervention in the Humanitarian Crisis in the Sudan', Annual Survey of International and Comparative Law, 11: 49-70.
14. Bauman, Z. (1989), Modernity and the Holocaust. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
15. Benson, M. L. and Simpson, S. S. (2009), White-collar crime: An opportunity perspective. New York: Routledge.
16. Bernard, T. J. and Snipes, J. N. (1996), 'Theoretical Integration in Criminology', in M. Tonry, ed., Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, Vol. 20, 301-48. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
17. Bhavnani, R. (2006), 'Ethnic Norms and Interethnic Violence: Accounting for Mass Participation in the Rwandan Genocide', Journal of Peace Research, 43: 651-69.
18. Birn, R. B. (1997), 'Revising the Holocaust', Historical Journal, 40: 195-215.
19. Blass, T. (2002), 'Obedience: Social Psychological Perspectives', in N. Smelser and P. Baltes, eds, The International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 16, 10764-10768. New York: Elsevier.
20. Brannigan, A. (1998), 'Criminology and the Holocaust: Xenophobia, Evolution, and Genocide', Crime and Delinquency, 44: 257-76.
21. Brannigan, A. and Hardwick, K.H. (2003), 'Genocide and General Theory', in C.L. Britt and M. R. Gottfredson, eds, Control Theories of Crime and Delinquency, pp. 109-31. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishing.
22. Browder, G. C. (2003), 'Perpetrator Character and Motivation: An Emerging Consensus?', Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 17: 480-97.
23. Browning, C. R. (1985), Fateful Months: Essays on the Emergence of the Final Solution. New York: Holmes and Meier.
24. - (1998), Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland. New York: Harper/Collins.
25. Castle, T. and Hensley, C. (2002), 'Serial killers with military experience: Applying learning theory to serial murder', International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 46(4): 453-465.
26. Chrétien, J. P. (1995), Rwanda: les médias du genocide. (Rwanda: Media Genocide) Paris: Karthala.
27. Clayton, S. D. (1992), 'The Experience of Injustice: Some Characteristics and Correlates', Social Justice Research, 5: 71-91.
28. Cohen, S. (1972/2002), Folk Devils and Moral Panics: The Creation of the Mods and Rockers, 3rd edn. New York: Routledge.
29. Cohn, N. (1980), Warrant for Genocide: The Myth of the Jewish World Conspiracy and the Protocols of the Elders of Zion. New York: Scholars Press.
30. Collier, P., Elliot, V. L., Hegre, H., Hoeffler, A., Reynal-Querol, M. and Sambanis, N. (2003), Breaking the Conflict Trap: Civil War and Development Policy. Washington, DC : World Bank, World Bank Publications.
31. Dadrian, V. N. (2004), 'Patterns of Twentieth Century Genocides: The Armenian, Jewish, and Rwandan Cases', Journal of Genocide Research, 6: 487-522.
32. Des Forges, A. (1999), Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda. New York: Human Rights Watch.
33. Doris, J. and Murphy, D. (2007), 'From My Lai to Abu Ghraib: The Moral Psychology of Atrocity', Midwest Studies in Philosophy: Philosophy and the Empirical, 31: 25-55.
34. Douma, P. (2006), 'Poverty, Relative Deprivation and Political Exclusion as Drivers of Violent Conflict in Sub Saharan Africa', Journal on Science and World Affairs, 2(2): 59-69.
35. Elliot, A. J. and Devine, P. G. (1994), 'On the Motivational Nature of Cognitive Dissonance: Dissonance as Psychological Discomfort', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67: 382-94.
36. Elliott, D. S. (1985), 'The Assumption that Theories Can Be Combined with Increased Explanatory Power: Theoretical Integration', in R. F. Meier, ed., Theoretical Methods in Criminology, 123-49. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
37. Epstein, C. (2010), Model Nazi: Arthur Greiser and the Occupation of Western Poland. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
38. Faris, E. (1975), 'Takeoff Point for the National Socialist Party: The Landtag Election in Baden, 1929', Central European History, 8: 140-71.
39. Festinger, L. (1957), A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
40. Fletcher, L. (2007), 'Turning Interahamwe: Individual and Community Choices in the Rwandan Genocide', Journal of Genocide Research, 9: 25-48.
41. General Assembly of the United Nations (1948), Resolution 260 of 9 December 1948, the General Assembly.
42. Gerlach, C. (2010), Extremely Violent Societies: Mass Violence in the Twentieth-Century World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
43. Gibbons, D. C. (1997), 'Review Essay: Race, Ethnicity, Crime, and Social Policy', Crime and Delinquency, 43: 358-80.
44. Goldhagen, D. J. (1996), Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
45. Golooba-Mutebi, F. (2008), Collapse, War and Reconstruction in Rwanda: An Analytical Narrative on State-Making, Working Paper 28, 1-40. London: Crisis States Research Centre.
46. Gonsalves, R. E. (2008), 'Hysterical Blindness and the Ideology of Denial: Preservice Teachers' Resistance to Multicultural Education', in L. I. Bartolomé, ed., Ideologies in Education: Unmasking the Trap of Teacher Neutrality, 3-28. New York: Peter Lang.
47. Gordon, A., Reich, A. M. and Goldberg, A. (1997), 'An Interview with Prof. Hans Mommsen', 12 December: 2, 3, available online at www1.yadvashem.org/ odot-pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%203850.pdf.
48. Gottfredson, M. R. and Hirschi, T.(1990), A General Theory of Crime. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
49. Gourevitch, P. (1999), 'Triumph of Evil', Frontline, available online at www.pbs.org/wgbh/ pages/frontline/shows/evil/interviews/gourevitch.html.
50. Gross, J. T. (2001), Neighbors. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
51. Guimond, S. and Dambrun, M. (2002), 'When Prosperity Breeds Intergroup Hostility: The Effects of Relative Deprivation and Gratification on Prejudice', Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28: 900-10.
52. Hagan, J. and Rymond-Richmond, W. (2008), 'The Collective Dynamics of Race and Genocidal Victimization in Darfur', American Sociological Review, 73: 875-902.
53. - (2009), 'Criminology Confronts Genocide: Who's Side Are You On?' Theoretical Criminology, 13(4): 503-511.
54. Hamann, B. (1999), Hitler's Vienna: A Dictator's Apprenticeship. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.
55. Harmon-Jones, E. (1999), 'Toward an Understanding of the Motivation Underlying Dissonance Effects: Is the Production of Aversive Consequences Necessary to Cause Dissonance?', in E. Harmon-Jones and J. Mills, eds, Cognitive Dissonance: Progress on a Pivotal Theory in Social Psychology, 71-99. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
56. - (2000), 'An Update on Dissonance Theory, with a Focus on the Self', in A. Tesser, R. Felson and J. Suls, eds, Psychological Perspectives on Self and Identity, 119-44. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
57. Harmon-Jones, E. and Harmon-Jones, C. (2007), 'Cognitive Dissonance Theory after 50 Years of Development', Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie, 38: 7-16.
58. Harmon-Jones, E., Sigelman, J. D., Bohlig, A. and Harmon-Jones, C. (2003), 'Anger, Coping, and Frontal Cortical Activity: The Effect of Coping Potential on Anger-Induced Left Frontal Activity', Cognition and Emotion, 17: 1-24.
59. Hauser, M. D. and Spelke, E. S. (2004), 'Evolutionary and Developmental Foundations of Human Knowledge: A Case Study of Mathematics', in M. Gazzaniga, ed., The Cognitive Neurosciences, Vol. 3, 853-64. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
60. Hintjens, H. (2001), 'When Identity Becomes a Knife: Reflecting on the Genocide in Rwanda', Ethnicities, 1: 25-55.
61. Hinton, A. L. (1996), 'Agents of Death: Explaining the Cambodian Genocide in Terms of Psychosocial Dissonance', American Anthropologist, 98: 818-31.
62. Hoffer, E. (1951), The True Believer: Thoughts on the Nature of Mass Movements. New York: HarperCollins.
63. Hron, M. (2011), 'Gukora and Itsembatsemba: The "Ordinary Killers" in Jean Hatzfeld's Machete Season', Research in African Literatures, 42: 125-46.
64. Jones, A. (2002), 'Gender and Genocide in Rwanda', Journal of Genocide Research, 4: 65-94.
65. - (2010), Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction, 2nd edn. London: Routledge.
66. Katz, F. E. (2004), Confronting Evil: Two Journeys. Albany: State University of New York Press.
67. Katz, J. (1988), Seductions of Crime: Moral and Sensual Attractions in Doing Evil. New York: Basic.
68. Keltner, D., Ellsworth, P. C. and Edwards, K. (1993), 'Beyond Simple Pessimism: Effects of Sadness and Anger on Social Perception', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64: 740-52.
69. Langton, L. and Piquero, N. L. (2007) 'Can general strain theory explain white collar crime? A preliminary investigation of the relationship between strain and select whitecollar offenses'. Journal of Criminal Justice, 35, 1-15.
70. Longshore, D., Chang, E., Hsieh, S. C. and Messina, N. (2004), 'Self-Control and Social Bonds: A Combined Control Perspective on Deviance', Crime and Delinquency, 50: 542-64.
71. Lower, W. (2011), 'Pogroms, Mob Violence and Genocide in Western Ukraine, Summer 1941: Varied Histories, Explanations and Comparisons', Journal of Genocide Research, 13: 217-46.
72. Madden, P. and Mühlberger, D. (2007), The Nazi Party: The Anatomy of a People's Party, 1919-1933. Oxford: Lang.
73. Magnarella, P. J. (2002), 'Explaining Rwanda's 1994 Genocide', Human Rights and Human Welfare, 2: 25-34.
74. Maier-Katkin, D., Mears, D. and Bernard, T. (2009), 'Towards a Criminology of Crimes against Humanity', Theoretical Criminology, 13: 227-56.
75. Mamdani, M. (2001), When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
76. Marrus, M. R. (1987), The Holocaust in History. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England.
77. Mason, T. (1997), Social Policy in the Third Reich: The Working Class and the 'National Community', 1918-1939, Oxford: Berg.
78. McRobbie, A. (1994), Post-Modernism and Popular Culture. London: Routledge.
79. Menard, S. and Morris, R. G. (2012), 'Theory and Crimes of Trust', Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 28: 365-87.
80. Mikula, G. (1986), 'The Experience of Injustice: Toward a Better Understanding of Its Phenomenology', in H. W. Bierhoff, R. L. Cohen and J. Greenberg, eds, Justice in Social Relations, 103-24. New York: Plenum.
81. Milgram, S. (1974), Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View. New York: Harper and Row.
82. Muftić, L. R. (2009), 'Macro-Micro Theoretical Integration: An Unexplored Theoretical Frontier', Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Criminology, 1: 33-71.
83. Murray, A. A., Wood, J. M. and Lilienfeld, S. O. (2012), 'Psychopathic Personality Traits and Cognitive Dissonance: Individual Differences in Attitude Change', Journal of Research in Personality, 46: 525-36.
84. Newbury, D. (1998), 'Understanding Genocide', African Studies Review, 41: 73-97.
85. Oleson, J. C. (2007), 'The Antigone Dilemma: When the Paths of Law and Morality Diverge', Cardozo Law Review, 29: 669-702.
86. Oplinger, J. (1990), The Politics of Demonology: The European Witch Craze and the Mass Production of Deviance. London: Associated University Press.
87. Paternoster, R., & Bachman, R. (2001), Explaining criminals and crime. Los Angeles: Roxbury Publishing.
88. Pohl, D. (1997), 'Die Holocaustforschung and Goldhagens Thesen', (Holocaust Research and Goldhagen's Theses) Vierteljahrshefte fur Zeitgeschichte, 45: 1-48.
89. Pollock, G. and Silverman, M. (2012), 'Introduction: Concentrationary Cinema', in G. Pollock and M. Silverman, eds, Concentrationary Cinema: Aesthetics as Political Resistance in Alain Resnais's Night and Fog, 33. London and New York: Berghahn.
90. Power, S. (2001), 'Bystanders to Genocide', Atlantic Monthly, September, 288: 84-108, available online at www.theatlantic.com/doc/200109/power-genocide.
91. Prunier, G. (2005), Darfur: The Ambiguous Genocide. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
92. Putnam, R. D. (2000), Bowling Alone. New York: Simon and Schuster.
93. Rawls, J. (1999), The Law of Peoples. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
94. Reich, W. (1970), The Mass Psychology of Fascism, translated by V. R. Carfagno. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux (original work published 1946).
95. Rombouts, H. (2006), 'Women and Reparations in Rwanda: A Long Path to Travel', in J. K. Rubio-Roth and R. L. Rubenstein, eds, Approaches to Auschwitz: The Holocaust and Its Legacy, Part 804, revised edn. Louisville, KT: John Knox Press.
96. Rothbart, D. and Korostelina, K. (2008), 'The Enemy and the Innocent in Violent Conflicts', in D. J. D. Sandole, S. Byrne, I. Sandole-Staroste and J. Senehi, eds, Handbook of Conflict Analysis and Resolution, 85-99. New York: Routledge.
97. Rubenstein, R. L. and Roth, J. K. (2003), Approaches to Auschwitz: The Holocaust and its Legacy. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press.
98. Rurup, R. (1996), 'Viel Larm uber Nichts? D. J. Goldhagens "Radikale Revision" der Holocaustforschung', (Much ado about Nothing? Goldhagen's Radical Revision of Holocaust Research) Neue Politische Literatur, 3: 357-63.
99. Russo, J. E., Medvec, V. H. and Meloy, M. G. (1996), 'The Distortion of Information during Decisions', Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 66: 102-10.
100. Russo, J. E., Meloy, M. G. and Medvec, V. H. (1998), 'Predecisional Distortion of Product Information', Journal of Marketing Research, 35: 438-52.
101. Scher, S. J. (1997), 'Measuring the Consequences of Injustice', Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23: 482-97.
102. Simon, T. W. (2007), The Laws of Genocide: Prescriptions for a Just World. Westport, CT: Praeger Security International.
103. Smeulers, A. and Hoex, L. (2010), 'Studying the Micro-Dynamics of the Rwandan Genocide', British Journal of Criminology, 50: 435-54.
104. Smith, R. B. (2010), 'Why Nazified Germans Killed Jewish People: Insights from Agent- Based Modeling of Genocidal Actions', in H. F. Dahms and L. Hazelrigg, eds, Theorizing the Dynamics of Social Processes (Current Perspectives in Social Theory, Volume 27, pp.275-342). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
105. Soutar, G. N. and Sweeney, J. C. (2003), 'Are There Cognitive Dissonance Segments?', Australian Journal of Management, 28: 227-49.
106. Stern, F. (1996), 'The Goldhagen Controversy', Foreign Affairs, Nov./Dec.: 128-38.
107. Straus, S. (2001), 'Contested Meanings and Conflicting Imperatives: A Conceptual Analysis of Genocide', Journal of Genocide Research, 3: 349-75.
108. Strauss, S. (2006), The Order of Genocide: Race, Power and War in Rwanda. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
109. Tacar, P. and Gauin, M. (2012), 'State Identity, Continuity, and Responsibility: The Ottoman Empire, the Republic of Turkey and the Armenian Genocide', European Journal of International Law, 23: 797-820.
110. Thomson, O. (1999), Easily Led: A History of Propaganda. Stroud: Sutton Publishing.
111. Totten, S. and Parsons, W. S. (2009), Century of Genocide: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts, 3rd edn. New York, NY: Routledge.
112. Ungar, S. (2001), 'Moral Panic versus the Risk Society: The Implications of the Changing Sites of Social Anxiety', British Journal of Sociology, 52: 271-91.
113. Valentino, B. A. (2004), Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century. Ithaca, NY, and London: Cornell University Press.
114. Waller, J. (1996), 'Perpetrators of the Holocaust: Divided and Unitary Self Conceptions of Evildoing', Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 10: 11-33.
115. - (2001), 'Perpetrators of Genocide: An Explanatory Model of Extraordinary Human Evil', Journal of Hate Studies, 1: 5-22.
116. - (2007), Becoming Evil: How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and Mass Killing. New York: Oxford University Press.
117. Walzer, M. (2000), 'Just and Unjust Wars', 3rd edn. New York: Basic Books.
118. Warwick Organizational Behaviour Staff, eds (2000), Organization Studies: Critical Perspectives on Business and Management, Vol. 3. London: Routledge.
119. Winton, M. A. (2011), 'Violentization Theory and Genocide', Homicide Studies, 15: 363-81.
120. Wood, W. B. (2001), 'Geographic Aspects of Genocide: A Comparison of Bosnia and Rwanda', Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 26: 57-75.
121. Woolf, L. M. and Hulsizer, M. R. (2005), 'Psychosocial Roots of Genocide: Risk, Prevention, and Intervention', Journal of Genocide Research, 7: 101-28.
122. Zhang, J., Dong, N., Delprino, R. and Zhou, L. (2009), 'Psychological Strains Found from In-Depth Interviews with 105 Chinese Rural Youth Suicides', Archives of Suicide, 13: 185-94.
123. Zillmer, E. A., Harrower, M., Ritzler, B. A. and Archer, R. P. (1995), The Quest for the Nazi Personality: A Psychological Investigation of Nazi War Criminals. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
124. Zimbardo, P. G. and Weber, A. L. (1994), Psychology. New York: HarperCollins.