Physical basis of coastal adaptation on tropical small islands

Sustainability Science

Volumn 8, Issue 3, 2013, Pages 327-344

  Forbes, Donald L ^a,b   James, Thomas S ^c,d   Sutherland, Michael ^e,f   Nichols, Susan E ^f  

^a GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA   (Canada)

^b MEMORIAL UNIVERSITY OF NEWFOUNDLAND   (Canada)

^c Geological Survey of Canada Sidney   (Canada)

^d UNIVERSITY OF VICTORIA   (Canada)

^e UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES   (Trinidad and Tobago)

^f UNIVERSITY OF NEW BRUNSWICK   (Canada)

Author keywords

Atoll; Climate change; Disaster risk reduction; Reef island; Sea level rise; Volcanic island

Indexed keywords

EID: 84879786322     PISSN: 18624065     EISSN: 18624057     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11625-013-0218-4     Document Type: Article

References (126)

1. Adey WH (1978) Coral reef morphogenesis: a multidimensional model. Science 202: 831-837.
2. Allen M (1998) Holocene sea-level change on Aitutaki, Cook Islands: landscape change and human response. J Coastal Res 14: 10-22.
3. Baines GBK, McLean RF (1976) Sequential studies of hurricane deposit evolution at Funafuti Atoll. Mar Geol 21: M1-M8.
4. Bard E, Hamelin B, Arnold M, Montaggioni L, Cabioch G, Faure G, Rougerie F (1996) Deglacial sea-level record from Tahiti corals and the timing of global meltwater discharge. Nature 382: 241-244.
5. Barnett J, Campbell J (2010) Climate change and small island states: power, knowledge and the South Pacific. Earthscan, London.
6. Boudon G, Le Friant A, Komorowski JC, Deplus C, Semet MP (2007) Volcano flank instability in the Lesser Antilles Arc: diversity of scale, processes and temporal recurrence. J Geophys Res 112: B08205.
7. Bouysse P, Westercamp D, Andreieff P (1990) The Lesser Antilles island arc. Proc ODP Sci Results 110: 29-44.
8. Camoin GF, Colonna M, Montaggioni LF, Casanova J, Faure G, Thomassin BA (1997) Holocene sea level changes and reef development in the southwestern Indian Ocean. Coral Reefs 16: 247-259.
9. Carilli JE, Norris RD, Black B, Walsh SM, McField M (2010) Century-scale records of coral growth rates indicate that local stressors reduce coral thermal tolerance threshold. Glob Change Biol 16: 1247-1257.
10. Cazenave A, Llovel W (2010) Contemporary sea level rise. Annu Rev Marine Sci 2: 145-173.
11. Chappell J (1980) Coral morphology, diversity and reef growth. Nature 286: 249-252.
12. Church JA, White NJ (2006) A 20th century acceleration in global sea-level rise. Geophys Res Lett 33: L01602.
13. Church JA, White NJ (2011) Sea-level rise from the late 19th to the early 21st century. Surv Geophys 32: 585-602.
14. Church JA, White NJ, Coleman R, Lambeck K, Mitrovica JX (2004) Estimates of the regional distribution of sea level rise over the 1950-2000 period. J Clim 17: 2609-2625.
15. Church JA, White NJ, Hunter JR (2006) Sea-level rise at tropical Pacific and Indian Ocean islands. Global Planet Change 53: 155-168.
16. Church JA, White NJ, Aarup T, Wilson WS, Woodworth PL, Domingues CM, Hunter JR, Lambeck K (2008) Understanding global sea levels: past, present and future. Sustain Sci 3: 9-22.
17. Clift PD, MacLeod CJ, Tappin DR, Wright DJ, Bloomer SH (1998) Tectonic controls on sedimentation and diagenesis in the Tonga Trench and forearc, southwest Pacific. Geol Soc Am Bull 110: 483-496.
18. Collier JS, Minshull TA, Kendal JM, Whitmarsh RB, Rumpker G, Joseph P, Samson P, Lane CI, Snasom V, Vermeesch PM, Hammond J, Wookney J, Teanby T, Ryberg TM, Dean SM (2004) Rapid continental breakup and microcontinent formation in the western Indian Ocean. Eos Trans Am Geophys Union 85: 481.
19. Crump J, Kelman I (2009) Many strong voices from Arctic to island peoples. In: Climate change and Arctic sustainable development, UNESCO, Paris, pp 284-295.
20. Darwin C (1842) The structure and distribution of coral reefs. Smith, Elder and Co., London.
21. Davis D, Sutherland M, Jaggam S, Singh D (2012) Determining and monitoring sea level in the Caribbean using satellite altimetry. In: Knowing to manage the territory, protect the environment, evaluate the cultural heritage, FIG working week 2012, Rome, Session TS08D, pp 1-13.
22. de Scally FA (2008) Historical tropical cyclone activity and impacts in the Cook Islands. Pac Sci 62: 443-459.
23. Dickinson WR, Burley DV, Shutler R Jr (1999) Holocene paleoshoreline record in Tonga: geomorphic features and archaeological implications. J Coastal Res 15: 682-700.
24. Domingues CM, Church JA, White NJ, Gleckler PJ, Wijffels SE, Barker PM, Dunn JR (2008) Improved estimates of upper-ocean warming and multi-decadal sea-level rise. Nature 453: 1090-1093.
25. Donner S (2012) Sea level rise and the ongoing battle of Tarawa. Eos Trans Am Geophys Union 93: 169-170.
26. Emery KO (1961) A simple method of measuring beach profiles. Limnol Oceanogr 6: 90-93.
27. Emery KO, Milliman JD (1980) Shallow-water limestones from the slope off Grand Cayman Island. J Geol 88: 483-488.
28. Forbes DL (1995) Coastal stability and sand transport, Aitutaki, southern Cook Islands. South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission, Suva, SOPAC technical report 226, http://ict. sopac. org/VirLib/TR0226. pdf. Accessed 11 September 2012.
29. Forbes DL (1996) Coastal geology and hazards of Niue. South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission, Suva, SOPAC technical report 233, http://ict. sopac. org/VirLib/TR0233. pdf. Accessed 24 September 2012.
30. Forbes DL, Biribo N (1996) Shore-zone sand and gravel of South Tarawa, Kiribati: preliminary assessment of selected sites. South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission, Suva, SOPAC technical report 235, http://ict. sopac. org/VirLib/TR0235. pdf. Accessed 11 September 2012.
31. Forbes DL, Kruger J, Motuiwaca S, Naibitakele N (1995) Coastal sedimentation and shore processes, Natadola Beach, Viti Levu, Fiji. South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission, Suva, SOPAC preliminary report 83, http://ict. sopac. org/VirLib/LR0083. pdf. Accessed 23 September 2012.
32. Fritz HM, Synolakis CE, McAdoo BG, Caputo R (2006) Maldives field survey of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. Earthq Spectra 22: S137-S154. http://faculty. vassar. edu/brmcadoo/EERI_Maldives_FzSyMcCa3. pdf. Accessed 7 September 2012.
33. Fritz HM, Borrero JC, Synolakis CE, Okal EA, Weiss R, Titov VV, Jaffe BE, Foteinis S, Lynett PJ, Chan I-C, Liu PL-F (2011) Insights on the 2009 South Pacific tsunami in Samoa and Tonga from field surveys and numerical simulations. Earth-Sci Rev 107: 66-75.
34. Glaser M, Kremer H, Ramachandran R, Carruthers T, Newton A, Forbes DL, Wolanski E (2012) Addressing five grand challenges for islands at risk. In: Proceedings of planet under pressure conference 2012, London, http://www. loicz. org/imperia/md/content/loicz/pup/addressing_five_grand_challenges_for_islands_at_risk. pdf. Accessed 11 September 2012.
35. Gourlay MR (1994) Wave transformation on a coral reef. Coast Eng 23: 17-42.
36. Grinsted A, Moore JC, Jevrejeva S (2009) Reconstructing sea level from paleo and projected temperatures 200 to 2100 AD. Clim Dyn 34: 461-472.
37. Harbitz CB, Glimsdal S, Bazin S, Zamora N, Løvholt F, Bungum H, Smebye H, Gauer P, Kjekstad O (2012) Tsunami hazard in the Caribbean: regional exposure derived from credible worst case scenarios. Cont Shelf Res 38: 1-23.
38. Harp EL, Reid ME, Michael JA (2004) Hazard analysis of landslides triggered by Typhoon Chata'an on July 2, 2002, in Chuuk State, Federated States of Micronesia. US Geological Survey, open-file report 2004-2348.
39. Harris A, Manahira G, Sheppard A, Gough C, Sheppard C (2010) Demise of Madagascar's once great barrier reef: changes in coral reef conditions over 40 years. Atoll Res Bull 574: 1-16.
40. Hay J, Mimura N (2010) The changing nature of extreme weather and climate events: risks to sustainable development. Geomat Nat Hazards Risk 1: 3-18.
41. Herrmann TM, Ronneberg E, Brewster M, Dengo M (2004) Social and economic aspects of disaster reduction, vulnerability and risk management in small island developing states. In: Small island habitats, proceedings of United Nations conference on small island states, Mauritius, pp 231-233.
42. Hoegh-Guldberg O, Mumby PJ, Hooten AJ, Steneck RS, Greenfield P, Gomez E, Harvell CD, Sale PF, Edwards AJ, Caldeira K, Knowlton N, Eakin CM, Iglesias-Prieto R, Muthiga N, Bradbury RH, Dubi A, Hatziolos ME (2007) Coral reefs under rapid climate change and ocean acidification. Science 318: 1737-1742.
43. Horsfield WT (1975) Quaternary movements in the Greater Antilles. Geol Soc Am Bull 86: 933-938.
44. IPCC (2007) Climate change 2007: synthesis report. Core Writing Team, Pachauri RK, Reisinger A (eds) Contribution of working groups I, II and III to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. IPCC, Geneva.
45. Jackson LE Jr, Barrie JV, Forbes DL, Shaw J, Manson GK, Schmidt M (2005) Effects of the 26 December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami in the Republic of Seychelles. Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, open file 4935, http://www. unisdr. org/files/2193_VL323132. pdf. Accessed 24 September 2012.
46. Jacobson G, Hill PJ (1980) Hydrogeology of a raised coral atoll-Niue Island, south Pacific Ocean. BMR J Aust Geol Geophys 5: 271-278.
47. James TS, Simon KM, Forbes DL, Dyke AS, Mate DJ (2011) Sea-level projections for five pilot communities of the Nunavut climate change partnership. Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, open file 6715.
48. Jevrejeva S, Grinsted A, Moore JC, Holgate S (2006) Nonlinear trends and multiyear cycles in sea level records. J Geophys Res 111: C09012.
49. Jevrejeva S, Moore JC, Grinsted A, Woodworth PL (2008) Recent global sea level acceleration started over 200 years ago? Geophys Res Lett 35: L08715.
50. Jevrejeva S, Moore JC, Grinsted A (2010) How will sea level respond to changes in natural and anthropogenic forcings by 2100? Geophys Res Lett 37: L07703.
51. Jevrejeva S, Moore JC, Grinsted A (2012) Sea level projections to AD2500 with a new generation of climate change scenarios. Global Planet Change 80-81: 14-20.
52. Jones B, Hunter IG (1990) Pleistocene paleogeography and sea levels on the Cayman Islands, British West Indies. Coral Reefs 9: 81-91.
53. Jones B, Ng K-C, Hunter IG (1997) Geology and hydrogeology of the Cayman Islands. In: Vacher HL, Quinn T (eds) Geology and hydrogeology of carbonate islands. Developments in sedimentology, vol 54, pp 299-326.
54. Kalbfleisch WBC, Jones B (1998) Sedimentology of shallow, hurricane-affected lagoons: Grand Cayman, British West Indies. J Coastal Res 14: 140-160.
55. Kelman I, West JJ (2009) Climate change and small island developing states: a critical review. Ecol Environ Anthropol 5: 1-16.
56. Kench PS (2012) Compromising reef island shoreline dynamics: legacies of the engineering paradigm in the Maldives. In: Cooper JAG, Pilkey OH (eds) Pitfalls of shoreline stabilization: selected case studies. Springer, Dordrecht. Coastal Research Library, vol 3, pp 165-186.
57. Kench PS, Cowell PJ (2001) The morphological response of atoll islands to sea-level rise: part 2: application of the modified shoreface translation model (STM). J Coast Res SI 34: 645-656.
58. Kench PS, McLean RF, Nichol SL (2005) New model of reef-island evolution: Maldives, Indian Ocean. Geology 33: 145-148.
59. Kench PS, McLean RF, Brander RW, Nichol SL, Smithers SG, Ford MR, Parnell KE, Aslam M (2006) Geological effects of tsunami on mid-ocean atoll islands: the Maldives before and after the Sumatran tsunami. Geology 34: 177-180.
60. Kostaschuk R, Terry J, Raj R (2001) Tropical cyclones and floods in Fiji. Hydrol Sci J 46: 435-450.
61. Krastel S, Schmincke HU, Jacobs CL, Rihm R, Le Bas TM, Alibés B (2001) Submarine landslides around the Canary Islands. J Geophys Res 106(B3): 3977-3997.
62. Lata S, Nunn P (2011) Misperceptions of climate-change risk as barriers to climate-change adaptation: a case study from the Rewa Delta, Fiji. Clim Change 110: 169-186.
63. Le Friant A, Boudon G, Komorowski JC, Heinrich P, Semet MP (2006) Potential flank-collapse of Soufriere volcano, Guadeloupe, Lesser Antilles? Nat Hazards 39: 381-393.
64. Le Friant A, Boudon G, Arnulf A, Robertson REA (2009) Debris avalanche deposits offshore St. Vincent (West Indies): impact of flank-collapse events on the morphological evolution of the island. J Volcanol Geoth Res 179: 1-10.
65. Leuliette EW, Nerem RS, Mitchum GT (2004) Calibration of TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason altimeter data to construct a continuous record of mean sea level change. Mar Geodesy 27: 79-94.
66. Louvat P, Allègre CJ (1997) Present denudation rates on the island of Réunion determined by river geochemistry: basalt weathering and mass budget between chemical and mechanical erosion. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 61: 3645-3669.
67. Maragos JE, Baines GBK, Beveridge PJ (1973) Tropical Cyclone Bebe creates new land formation on Funafuti Atoll. Science 181: 1161-1164.
68. Massel SR, Gourlay MR (2000) On the modelling of wave breaking and set-up on coral reefs. Coast Eng 39: 1-27.
69. McAdoo BG, Moore A, Baumwell J (2009) Indigenous knowledge and the near field population response during the 2007 Solomon Islands tsunami. Nat Hazards 48: 73-82.
70. McClanahan T, Polunin N, Done T (2002) Ecological states and the resilience of coral reefs. Conserv Ecol 6(2): 18. http://www. consecol. org/vol6/iss2/art18. Accessed 11 September 2012.
71. McKee ED (1959) Storm sediments on a Pacific atoll. J Sediment Petrol 29: 354-364.
72. McLean RF, Woodroffe CD (1994) Coral atolls. In: Carter RWG, Woodroffe CD (eds) Coastal evolution: Late Quaternary shoreline morphodynamics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 267-302.
73. Meehl GA, Stocker TF, Collins WD, Friedlingstein P, Gaye AT, Gregory JM, Kitoh R, Knutti R, Murphy JM, Noda A, Raper SCB, Watterson IG, Weaver AJ, Zhao Z-C (2007) Global climate projections. In: Solomon S, Qin D, Manning M, Chen Z, Marquis M, Averyt KB, Tignor M, Miller HL (eds) Climate change 2007: the physical science basis. Contribution of working group I to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 747-846.
74. Mercer J, Kelman I, Suchet-Pearson S, Lloyd L (2009) Integrating indigenous and scientific knowledge bases for disaster-risk reduction in Papua New Guinea. Geogr Ann 91B: 157-183.
75. Mimura N, Nunn PD (1998) Trends of beach erosion and shoreline protection in rural Fiji. J Coastal Res 14: 37-46.
76. Mimura N, Nurse L, McLean R, Agard J, Briguglio L, Lefale P, Payet R, Sem G (2007) Small islands. In: Parry ML, Canziani OF, Palutikof JP, van der Linden PJ, Hanson CE (eds) Climate change 2007: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Contribution of working group II to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 687-716.
77. Mitrovica JX, Tamisiea ME, Davis JL, Milne GA (2001) Recent mass balance of polar ice sheets inferred from patterns of global sea-level change. Nature 409: 1026-1029.
78. Morton RA, Richmond BM, Jaffe BE, Gelfenbaum G (2006) Reconnaissance investigation of Caribbean extreme wave deposits-preliminary observations, interpretations, and research directions. US Geological Survey, open-file 2006-1293.
79. Nakicenovic N, Swart R (eds) (2000) Special report on emission scenarios: a special report of working group III, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, New York.
80. Nash MC, Opdyke BN, Troitzsch U, Russell BD, Adey WH, Kato A, Diaz-Pulido G, Brent C, Gardner M, Prichard J, Kline DI (2013) Dolomite-rich coralline algae in reefs resist dissolution in acidified conditions. Nat Clim Change 3: 268-272.
81. Neumann AC, Macintyre IG (1985) Reef response to sea level rise: keep-up, catch-up or give-up. In: Proceedings of the 5th international coral reef congress, vol 3, pp 105-110.
82. Nicholls RJ, Woodroffe CD, Burkett V, Hay J, Wong PP, Nurse L (2012) Scenarios for coastal vulnerability assessment. In: Wolanski E, McLusky DS (eds) Treatise on estuarine and coastal science, vol 12. Academic, Waltham, pp 289-303.
83. Nichols S, Tienaah T, Forbes D, Sutherland M (2011) Mobilizing local knowledge to bridge information gaps in climate change adaptation planning. In: People in places: engaging together in integrated resource management, Halifax, June 2011. http://www. coastalcura. ca/documents/NicholsSecured. pdf. Accessed 26 September 2012.
84. Nunn PD (1994) Oceanic islands. Blackwell, Oxford.
85. Nunn PD, Veitayaki J, Ram-Bidesi V, Vunisea A (1999) Coastal issues for oceanic islands: implications for human futures. Nat Resour Forum 23: 195-207.
86. O'Loughlin KF, Lander JF (2003) Caribbean tsunamis, a 500-year history from 1498-1998, 2nd edn. Springer, Dordrecht.
87. Oehler J-P, Lénat J-F, Labazuy P (2008) Growth and collapse of the Reunion Island volcanoes. Bull Volcanol 70: 717-742.
88. Ostrom E (1999) Coping with tragedies of the commons. Annu Rev Polit Sci 2: 493-535.
89. Ostrom E (2010) A long polycentric journey. Annu Rev Polit Sci 13: 1-23.
90. Pelling M, Uitto JI (2001) Small island developing states: natural disaster vulnerability and global change. Environ Hazards 3: 49-62.
91. Perfit MR, Heezen BC (1978) The geology and evolution of the Cayman Trench. Geol Soc Am Bull 89: 1155-1174.
92. Perry CT, Spencer T, Kench PS (2008) Carbonate budgets and reef production states: a geomorphic perspective on the ecological phase-shift concept. Coral Reefs 27: 853-866.
93. Perry CT, Kench PS, Smithers SG, Riegl B, Yamano H, O'Leary MJ (2011) Implications of reef ecosystem change for the stability and maintenance of coral reef islands. Glob Change Biol 17: 3679-3696.
94. Perry CT, Smithers SG, Gulliver P, Browne NK (2012) Evidence of very rapid reef accretion and reef growth under high turbidity and terrigenous sedimentation. Geology 40: 719-722.
95. Perry CT, Murphy GN, Kench PS, Smithers SG, Edinger EN, Steneck RS, Mumby PJ (2013) Caribbean-wide decline in carbonate production threatens coral reef growth. Nat Commun 4: 1402.
96. Pfeffer WT, Harper JT, O'Neel S (2008) Kinematic constraints on glacier contributions to 21st century sea-level rise. Science 321: 1340-1343.
97. Pirazzoli PA, Montaggioni LF, Salvat B, Faure G (1988) Late Holocene sea level indicators from twelve atolls in the central and eastern Tuamotus (Pacific Ocean). Coral Reefs 7: 57-68.
98. Rahmstorf S (2007) A semi-empirical approach to projecting future sea-level rise. Science 315: 368-370.
99. Rahmstorf S (2010) A new view on sea level rise. Nat Rep Clim Change 4: 44-45.
100. Rahmstorf S (2012) Sea-level rise: towards understanding local vulnerability. Environ Res Lett 7: 021001.
101. Rahmstorf S, Cazenave A, Church JA, Hansen JE, Keeling RF, Parker DE, Somerville RCJ (2007) Recent climate observations compared to projections. Science 316: 709.
102. Rahmstorf S, Foster G, Casenave A (2012a) Comparing climate projections to observations up to 2011. Environ Res Lett 7: 044035.
103. Rahmstorf S, Perrette M, Vermeer M (2012b) Testing the robustness of semi-empirical sea level projections. Clim Dyn 39: 861-875.
104. Richmond BM (1992) Development of atoll islets in the central Pacific. In: Proceedings of the 7th international coral reef congress, vol 2, pp 1185-1194.
105. Scheffers A (2005) Coastal response to extreme wave events-hurricanes and tsunami on Bonaire. Essener Geographische Arbeiten 37: 1-100.
106. Schwerdtner Máñez K, Husain S, Ferse SCA, Máñez Costa M (2012) Water scarcity in the Spermonde Archipelago, Sulawesi, Indonesia: past, present and future. Environ Sci Policy 23: 74-84.
107. Scoffin TP (1993) The geological effects of hurricanes on coral reefs and the interpretation of storm deposits. Coral Reefs 12: 203-221.
108. Scott CAJ, Rotondo GM (1983) A model to explain the differences between Pacific plate island atoll types. Coral Reefs 1: 139-150.
109. Shaw J, Jackson LE Jr, Forbes DL, Barrie JV, Manson GK, Schmidt M (2005) Tsunami impacts in the Republic of Seychelles following the great Sumatra earthquake of 26 December 2004. In: Proceedings of Canadian coastal conference 2005, Dartmouth, NS. Canadian Coastal Science and Engineering Association, Ottawa, pp 1-20.
110. Sheppard C, Dixon DJ, Gourlay M, Sheppard A, Payet R (2005) Coral mortality increases wave energy reaching shores protected by reef flats: examples from the Seychelles. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 64: 223-234.
111. Smith SV, Buddemeier RW (1992) Global change and coral reef ecosystems. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 23: 89-118.
112. Solomon SM (1997) Circulation studies in Manihiki Lagoon, Cook Islands. South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission, Suva, SOPAC technical report 246, http://ict. sopac. org/VirLib/TR0246. pdf. Accessed 24 September 2012.
113. Solomon SM, Forbes DL (1999) Coastal hazards and associated management issues on South Pacific islands. Ocean Coast Manag 42: 523-554.
114. Stoddart DR (1975) Scientific studies in the southern Cook Islands: background and bibliography. In: Stoddart DR, Gibbs PE (eds) Almost-atoll of Aitutaki: reef studies in the Cook Islands, South Pacific. Atoll Res Bull 190: 1-30.
115. Sutherland M, Dare P, Miller K (2008) Monitoring sea-level change in the Caribbean. Geomatica 62: 428-436.
116. Teeuw R, Rust D, Solana C, Dewdney C (2009) Large coastal landslides and tsunami hazard in the Caribbean. Eos Trans Am Geophys Union 90: 81-82.
117. Tienaah T (2011) Design and implementation of a coastal collaborative GIS to support sea level rise and storm surge adaptation strategies. M. Sc. E. thesis, Department of Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, technical report 276.
118. Webb AP, Kench PS (2010) The dynamic response of reef islands to sea-level rise: evidence from multi-decadal analysis of island change in the central Pacific. Glob Planet Change 72: 234-246.
119. Woodroffe CD (2002) Coasts: form, process and evolution. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
120. Woodroffe CD (2008) Reef-island topography and the vulnerability of atolls to sea-level rise. Glob Planet Change 62: 77-96.
121. Woodroffe CD, McLean RF, Smithers SG, Lawson EM (1999) Atoll reef-island formation and response to sea-level change: West Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands. Mar Geol 160: 85-104.
122. Woodroffe CD, Samosorn B, Hua Q, Hart DE (2007) Incremental accretion of a sandy reef island over the past 3000 years indicated by component-specific radiocarbon dating. Geophys Res Lett 34: L03602.
123. Woodworth PL, Player R (2003) The Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level: an update to the 21st century. J Coastal Res 19: 287-295.
124. Yamano H, Kayanne H, Chikamori M (2005) An overview of the nature and dynamics of reef islands. Glob Environ Res 9: 9-20.
125. Yamano H, Kayanne H, Yamaguchi T, Kuwahara Y, Yokoki H, Shimazaki H, Chikamori M (2007) Atoll island vulnerability to flooding and inundation revealed by historical reconstruction: Fongafale Islet, Funafuti Atoll, Tuvalu. Glob Planet Change 57: 407-416.
126. Zachariasen J, Sieh K, Taylor FW, Edwards RL, Hantoro WS (1999) Submergence and uplift associated with the giant 1833 Sumatran subduction earthquake: evidence from coral microatolls. J Geophys Res 104: 895-919.