Polypharmacy in the HIV-infected older adult population

Clinical Interventions in Aging

Volumn 8, Issue , 2013, Pages 749-763

  Gleason, Lauren J ^a   Luque, Amneris E ^b   Shah, Krupa ^a  

^a Highland Hospital Rochester   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ROCHESTER SCHOOL OF MEDICINE AND DENTISTRY   (United States)

Author keywords

HIV; Older adults; Polypharmacy

Indexed keywords

ALENDRONIC ACID; ANTIRETROVIRUS AGENT; ATAZANAVIR; CARDIOVASCULAR AGENT; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM AGENTS; CHEMOKINE RECEPTOR CCR5 ANTAGONIST; DIGOXIN; EFAVIRENZ; ETRAVIRINE; FLUTICASONE; FOSAMPRENAVIR; GASTROINTESTINAL AGENT; HISTAMINE H2 RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS FUSION INHIBITOR; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; INDINAVIR; LOPINAVIR; METHADONE; NELFINAVIR; NEVIRAPINE; NONNUCLEOSIDE REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE INHIBITOR; PROTEINASE INHIBITOR; RITONAVIR; RITONAVIR PLUS SAQUINAVIR; SAQUINAVIR; SILDENAFIL; TADALAFIL; TENOFOVIR; UNINDEXED DRUG; ZOLEDRONIC ACID;

AGING; ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; COMORBIDITY; DRUG CLEARANCE; DRUG CONTRAINDICATION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG ELIMINATION; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG POTENTIATION; DRUG TOLERABILITY; ERECTILE DYSFUNCTION; GASTROINTESTINAL DISEASE; HEALTH CARE COST; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HIGHLY ACTIVE ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTED PATIENT; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; HYPOTENSION; MEDICATION ERROR; MENTAL DISEASE; OSTEOPOROSIS; PAIN; POLYPHARMACY; PROSTATE HYPERTROPHY; REVIEW; STEROID THERAPY; TREATMENT RESPONSE;

HIV; OLDER ADULTS; POLYPHARMACY;

AGED; AGING; ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY, HIGHLY ACTIVE; COMORBIDITY; DRUG INTERACTIONS; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMANS; INAPPROPRIATE PRESCRIBING; MIDDLE AGED; POLYPHARMACY; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 84879387839     PISSN: 11769092     EISSN: 11781998     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2147/CIA.S37738     Document Type: Review

References (135)

1. Antiretroviral Therapy Cohort Collaboration. Life expectancy of individuals on combination antiretroviral therapy in high-income countries: a collaborative analysis of 14 cohort studies. Lancet. 2008; 372(9635):293-299.
2. Effros RB, Fletcher CV, Gebo K, etal. Aging and infectious diseases: workshop on HIV infection and aging: what is known and future research directions. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;47(4):542-553.
3. Shah SS, McGowan JP, Smith C, Blum S, Klein RS. Comorbid conditions, treatment, and health maintenance in older persons with human immunodeficiency virus infection in New York City. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;35(10):1238-1243.
4. Simone MJ, Appelbaum J. HIV in older adults. Geriatrics. 2008; 63(12):6-12.
5. Goulet JL, Fultz SL, Rimland D, etal. Aging and infectious diseases: do patterns of comorbidity vary by HIV status, age, and HIV severity? Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45(12):1593-1601.
6. Gebo KA. Epidemiology of HIV and response to antiretroviral therapy in the middle aged and elderly. Aging Health. 2008;4(6):615-627.
7. Bushardt RL, Jones KW. Nine key questions to address polypharmacy in the elderly. JAAPA. 2005;18(5):32-37.
8. Hajjar ER, Cafiero AC, Hanlon JT. Polypharmacy in elderly patients. Am J Geriatr Pharmacother. 2007;5(4):345-351.
9. Hanlon JT, Schmader KE, Ruby CM, Weinberger M. Suboptimal prescribing in older inpatients and outpatients. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2001;49(2):200-209.
10. Bushardt RL, Massey EB, Simpson TW, Ariail JC, Simpson KN. Polypharmacy: misleading, but manageable. Clin Interv Aging. 2008;3(2):383-389.
11. Kaufman DW, Kelly JP, Rosenberg L, Anderson TE, Mitchell AA. Recent patterns of medication use in the ambulatory adult population of the United States: the Slone survey. JAMA. 2002;287(3):337-344.
12. Freeland KN, Thompson AN, Zhao Y, Leal JE, Mauldin PD, Moran WP. Medication use and associated risk of falling in a geriatric outpatient population. Ann Pharmacother. 2012;46(9):1188-1192.
13. Zhan C, Sangl J, Bierman AS, etal. Potentially inappropriate medication use in the community-dwelling elderly: findings from the 1996 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey. JAMA. 2001;286(22):2823-2829.
14. Fialová D, Topinková E, Gambassi G, etal; for AdHOC Project Research Group. Potentially inappropriate medication use among elderly home care patients in Europe. JAMA. 2005;293(11):1348-1358.
15. Buajordet I, Ebbesen J, Erikssen J, Brørs O, Hilberg T. Fatal adverse drug events: the paradox of drug treatment. J Intern Med. 2001;250(4): 327-341.
16. Nolan L, O'Malley K. Prescribing for the elderly. Part I: sensitivity of the elderly to adverse drug reactions. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1988;36(2): 142-149.
17. Budnitz DS, Lovegrove MC, Shehab N, Richards CL. Emergency hospitalizations for adverse drug events in older Americans. N Engl J Med. 2011;365(21):2002-2012.
18. Lazarou J, Pomeranz BH, Corey PN. Incidence of adverse drug reactions in hospitalized patients: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. JAMA. 1998;279(15):1200-1205.
19. Shorr RI, Ray WA, Daugherty JR, Griffin MR. Incidence and risk factors for serious hypoglycemia in older persons using insulin or sulfonylureas. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157(15):1681-1686.
20. Björkman IK, Fastbom J, Schmidt IK, Bernsten CB; for Pharmaceutical Care of the Elderly in Europe Research (PEER) Group. Drug-drug interactions in the elderly. Ann Pharmacother. 2002;36(11): 1675-1681.
21. Gurwitz JH, Field TS, Harrold LR, etal. Incidence and preventability of adverse drug events among older persons in the ambulatory setting. JAMA. 2003;289(9):1107-1116.
22. Field TS, Gurwitz JH, Harrold LR, etal. Risk factors for adverse drug events among older adults in the ambulatory setting. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2004;52(8):1349-1354.
23. Jörgensen T, Johansson S, Kennerfalk A, Wallander MA, Svärdsudd K. Prescription drug use, diagnoses, and healthcare utilization among the elderly. Ann Pharmacother. 2001;35(9):1004-1009.
24. Lees J, Chan A. Polypharmacy in elderly patients with cancer: clinical implications and management. Lancet Oncol. 2011;12(13): 1249-1257.
25. Madden JM, Graves AJ, Zhang F, etal. Cost-related medication nonadherence and spending on basic needs following implementation of Medicare Part D. JAMA. 2008;299(16):1922-1928.
26. Federman AD, Adams AS, Ross-Degnan D, Soumerai SB, Ayanian JZ. Supplemental insurance and use of effective cardiovascular drugs among elderly medicare beneficiaries with coronary heart disease. JAMA. 2001;286(14):1732-1739.
27. Miller RR. Hospital admissions due to adverse drug reactions. A report from the Boston Collaborative Drug Surveillance Program. Arch Intern Med. 1974;134(2):219-223.
28. Rochon PA, Gurwitz JH. Optimising drug treatment for elderly people: the prescribing cascade. BMJ. 1997;315(7115):1096-1099.
29. Fu AZ, Jiang JZ, Reeves JH, etal. Potentially inappropriate medication use and healthcare expenditures in the US community-dwelling elderly. Med Care. 2007;45(5):472-476.
30. American Geriatrics Society 2012 Beers Criteria Update Expert Panel. American Geriatrics Society updated Beers Criteria for potentially inappropriate medication use in older adults. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2012;60(4):616-631.
31. Fick DM, Cooper JW, Wade WE, Waller JL, Maclean JR, Beers MH. Updating the Beers criteria for potentially inappropriate medication use in older adults: results of a US consensus panel of experts. Arch Intern Med. 2003;163(22):2716-2724.
32. Beers MH. Explicit criteria for determining potentially inappropriate medication use by the elderly. An update. Arch Intern Med. 1997; 157(14):1531-1536.
33. Beers MH, Ouslander JG, Rollingher I, Reuben DB, Brooks J, Beck JC. Explicit criteria for determining inappropriate medication use in nursing home residents. UCLA Division of Geriatric Medicine. Arch Intern Med. 1991;151(9):1825-1832.
34. Hanlon JT, Schmader KE, Samsa GP, etal. A method for assessing drug therapy appropriateness. J Clin Epidemiol. 1992;45(10):1045-1051.
35. Steinman MA, Landefeld CS, Rosenthal GE, Berthenthal D, Sen S, Kaboli PJ. Polypharmacy and prescribing quality in older people. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2006;54(10):1516-1523.
36. Ingersoll KS, Cohen J. The impact of medication regimen factors on adherence to chronic treatment: a review of literature. J Behav Med. 2008;31(3):213-224.
37. Marzolini C, Back D, Weber R, etal; for Swiss HIV Cohort Study Members. Ageing with HIV: medication use and risk for potential drug-drug interactions. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2011;66(9):2107-2111.
38. Miller CD, El-Kholi R, Faragon JJ, Lodise TP. Prevalence and risk factors for clinically significant drug interactions with antiretroviral therapy. Pharmacotherapy. 2007;27(10):1379-1386.
39. Ammassari A, Murri R, Pezzotti P, etal; for AdICONA Study Group. Self-reported symptoms and medication side effects influence adherence to highly active antiretroviral therapy in persons with HIV infection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2001;28(5):445-449.
40. Barclay TR, Hinkin CH, Castellon SA, etal. Age-associated predictors of medication adherence in HIV-positive adults: health beliefs, self-efficacy, and neurocognitive status. Health Psychol. 2007;26(1): 40-49.
41. Hinkin CH, Hardy DJ, Mason KI, etal. Medication adherence in HIV-infected adults: effect of patient age, cognitive status, and substance abuse. AIDS. 2004;18 Suppl 1:S19-S25.
42. Paterson DL, Swindells S, Mohr J, etal. Adherence to protease inhibitor therapy and outcomes in patients with HIV infection. Ann Intern Med. 2000;133(1):21-30.
43. Liedtke MD, Rathbun RC. Warfarin-antiretroviral interactions. Ann Pharmacother. 2009;43(2):322-328.
44. de Maat MM, Ekhart GC, Huitema AD, Koks CH, Mulder JW, Beijnen JH. Drug interactions between antiretroviral drugs and comedicated agents. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2003;42(3):223-282.
45. Fellay J, Marzolini C, Decosterd L, etal. Variations of CYP3A activity induced by antiretroviral treatment in HIV-1infected patients. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2005;60(12):865-873.
46. Eagling VA, Back DJ, Barry MG. Differential inhibition of cytochrome P450 isoforms by the protease inhibitors, ritonavir, saquinavir and indinavir. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1997;44(2):190-194.
47. Rhee MS, Greenblatt DJ. Pharmacologic consideration for the use of antiretroviral agents in the elderly. J Clin Pharmacol. 2008;48(10): 1212-1225.
48. Nachega JB, Hsu AJ, Uthman OA, Spinewine A, Pham PA. Antiretroviral therapy adherence and drug-drug interactions in the aging HIV population. AIDS. 2012;26 Suppl 1:S39-S53.
49. Klotz U. Pharmacokinetics and drug metabolism in the elderly. Drug Metab Rev. 2009;41(2):67-76.
50. Sitar DS. Aging issues in drug disposition and efficacy. Proc West Pharmacol Soc. 2007;50:16-20.
51. Marchesini G, Bua V, Brunori A, etal. Galactose elimination capacity and liver volume in aging man. Hepatology. 1988;8(5):1079-1083.
52. Wynne HA, Cope LH, Mutch E, Rawlins MD, Woodhouse KW, James OF. The effect of age upon liver volume and apparent liver blood flow in healthy man. Hepatology. 1989;9(2):297-301.
53. Manfredi R. HIV infection and advanced age emerging epidemiological, clinical, and management issues. Ageing Res Rev. 2004;3(1): 31-54.
54. Sulkowski MS. Drug-induced liver injury associated with antiretroviral therapy that includes HIV-1 protease inhibitors. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;38 Suppl 2:S90-S97.
55. Clark WF, Sontrop JM, Macnab JJ, etal. Urine volume and change in estimated GFR in a community-based cohort study. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2011;6(11):2634-2641.
56. Gupta SK, Eustace JA, Winston JA, etal. Guidelines for the management of chronic kidney disease in HIV-infected patients: recommendations of the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Inf Dis. 2005;40(11):1559-1585.
57. Choi AI, Rodriguez RA, Bacchetti P, Bertenthal D, Volberding PA, O'Hare AM. Racial differences in end-stage renal disease rates in HIV infection versus diabetes. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2007;18(11): 2968-2974.
58. Mocroft A, Kirk O, Gatell J, etal. Chronic renal failure among HIV-1-infected patients. AIDS. 2007;21(9):1119-1127.
59. Scherzer R, Estrella M, Li Y, etal. Association of tenofovir exposure with kidney disease risk in HIV infection. AIDS. 2012;26(7):867-875.
60. Kalayjian RC, Franceschini N, Gupta SK, etal. Suppression of HIV-1 replication by antiretroviral therapy improves renal function in persons with low CD4 cell counts and chronic kidney disease. AIDS. 2008;22(4): 481-487.
61. Cohen C, Elion R, Ruane P, etal. Randomized, phase 2 evaluation of two single-tablet regimens elvitegravir/cobicistat/emtricitabine/tenofovir disoproxil fumarate versus efavirenz/emtricitabine/tenofovir disoproxil fumarate for the initial treatment of HIV infection. AIDS. 2011;25(6):F7-F12.
62. Elion R, Cohen C, Gathe J, etal; for GS-US-216-0105 Study Team. Phase 2study of cobicistat versus ritonavir each with once-daily atazanavir and fixed-dose emtricitabine/tenofovir df in the initial treatment of HIV infection. AIDS. 2011;25(15):1881-1886.
63. Worm SW, Sabin C, Weber R, etal. Risk of myocardial infarction in patients with HIV infection exposed to specific individual antiretroviral drugs from the 3major drug classes: the data collection on adverse events of anti-HIV drugs (D:A:D) study. J Infect Dis. 2010;201(3): 318-330.
64. Seaberg EC, Muñoz A, Lu M, etal; for Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. Association between highly active antiretroviral therapy and hypertension in a large cohort of men followed from 1984 to 2003. AIDS. 2005;19(9):953-960.
65. Sattler FR, Qian D, Louie S, etal. Elevated blood pressure in subjects with lipodystrophy. AIDS. 2001;15(15):2001-2010.
66. Hadigan C, Meigs JB, Corcoran C, etal. Metabolic abnormalities and cardiovascular disease risk factors in adults with human immunodeficiency virus infection and lipodystrophy. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;32(1): 130-139.
67. Glesby MJ, Aberg JA, Kendall MA, etal; for Adult AIDS Clinical Trials Group A5159 Protocol Team. Pharmacokinetic interactions between indinavir plus ritonavir and calcium channel blockers. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2005;78(2):143-153.
68. AIDSinfo. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1infected adults and adolescents [webpage on the Internet]. Rockville, MD: Department of Health and Human Services; 2013. Available from: http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/guidelines. Accessed 27 Feb, 2013.
69. Cheng JW, Rybak I. Use of digoxin for heart failure and atrial fibrillation in elderly patients. Am J Geriatr Pharmacother. 2010;8(5): 419-427.
70. Koup JR, Greenblatt DJ, Jusko WJ, Smith TW, Koch-Weser J. Pharmacokinetics of digoxin in normal subjects after intravenous bolus and infusion doses. J Pharmacokinet Biopharm. 1975;3(3):181-192.
71. Schmitt C, Kaeser B, Riek M, Bech N, Kreuzer C. Effect of saquinavir/ritonavir on P-glycoprotein activity in healthy volunteers using digoxin as a probe. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2010;48(3):192-199.
72. Knoell KR, Young TM, Cousins ES. Potential interaction involving warfarin and ritonavir. Ann Pharmacother. 1998;32(12):1299-1302.
73. Kamin DS, Grinspoon SK. Cardiovascular disease in HIV-positive patients. AIDS. 2005;19(7):641-652.
74. Dubé MP, Cadden JJ. Lipid metabolism in treated HIV Infection. Best Prac Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;25(3):429-442.
75. Dubé MP, Stein JH, Aberg JA, etal; for Adult AIDS Clinical Trials Group Cardiovascular Subcommittee; HIV Medical Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Guidelines for the evaluation and management of dyslipidemia in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected adults receiving antiretroviral therapy: recommendations of the HIV Medical Association of the Infectious Disease Society of America and the Adult AIDS Clinical Trials Group. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37(5):613-627.
76. Samineni D, Desai PB, Sallans L, Fichtenbaum CJ. Steady-state pharmacokinetic interactions of darunavir/ritonavir with lipid-lowering agent rosuvastatin. J Clin Pharm. 2012;52(6):922-931.
77. Aquilante CL, Kiser JJ, Anderson PL, etal. Influence of SLCO1B1 polymorphisms on the drug-drug interaction between darunavir/ritonavir and pravastatin. J Clin Pharm. 2012;52(11):1725-1738.
78. Gerber JG, Rosenkranz SL, Fichtenbaum CJ, etal; for AIDS Clinical Trials Group A5108 Team. Effect of efavirenz on the pharmacokinetics of simvastatin, atorvastatin, and pravastatin: results of AIDS Clinical Trials Group 5108 Study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2005;39(3): 307-312.
79. Garraway WM, Collins GN, Lee RJ. High prevalence of benign prostatic hypertrophy in the community. Lancet. 1991;338(8765):469-471.
80. Berry SJ, Coffey DS, Walsh PC, Ewing LL. The development of human benign prostatic hyperplasia with age. J Urol. 1984;132(3): 474-479.
81. Kirby RS. The natural history of benign prostatic hyperplasia: what have we learned in the last decade? Urology. 2000;56(5 Suppl 1):3-6.
82. Franco-Salinas G, de la Rosette JJ, Michel MC. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of tamsulosin in its modified-release and oral controlled absorption system formulations. Clinical Pharmacokinet. 2010;49(3):177-188.
83. Lallemand F, Salhi Y, Linard F, Giami A. Rozenbaum W. Sexual dysfunction in 156 ambulatory HIV-infected men receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy combinations with and without protease inhibitors. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002;30(2):187-190.
84. Corona G, Razzoli E, Forti G, Maggi M. The use of phosphodiesterase 5 inhibitors with concomitant medications. J Endocrinol Invest. 2008;31(9):799-808.
85. Gur S, Kadowitz PJ, Gokce A, Sikka SC, Lokman U, Hellstrom WJ. Update on drug interactions with phosphodiesterase-5inhibitors prescribed as first-line therapy for patients with erectile dysfunction or pulmonary hypertension. Curr Drug Metab. 2013;14(2):265-269.
86. Nkuize M, De Wit S, Muls V, Arvanitakis M, Buset M. Upper gastrointestinal endoscopic findings in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. HIV Med. 2010;11(6):412-417.
87. Wang X, Boffito M, Zhang J, etal. Effects of the H2-receptor antagonist famotidine on the pharmacokinetics of atazanavir-ritonavir with or without tenofovir in HIV-infected patients. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2011;25(9):509-515.
88. Luber AD, Brower R, Kim D, Silverman R, Peloquin CA, Frank I. Steady-state pharmacokinetics of once-daily fosamprenavir/ritonavir and atazanavir/ritonavir alone and in combination with 20mg omeprazole in healthy volunteers. HIV Med. 2007;8(7):457-464.
89. Winston A, Back D, Fletcher C, etal. Effect of omeprazole on the pharmacokinetics of saquinavir-500mg formulation with ritonavir in healthy male and female volunteers. AIDS. 2006;20(10):1401-1406.
90. Lyness JM, Caine ED, King DA, Cox C, Yoediono Z. Psychiatric disorders in older primary care patients. J Gen Intern Med. 1999;14(4): 249-254.
91. Ciesla JA, Roberts JE. Meta-analysis of the relationship between HIV infection and risk for depressive disorders. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158(5):725-730.
92. Caballero J, Nahata MC. Use of selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors in the treatment of depression in adults with HIV. Ann Pharmacother. 2005;39(1):141-145.
93. Elliott AJ, Uldall KK, Bergam K, Russo J, Claypoole K, Roy-Byrne PP. Randomized, placebo-controlled trial of paroxetine versus imipramine in depressed HIV-positive outpatients. Am J Psychiatry. 1998;155(3): 367-372.
94. van der Lee MJ, Blenke AA, Rongen GA, etal. Interaction study of the combined use of paroxetine and fosamprenavir-ritonavir in healthy subjects. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2007;51(11):4098-4104.
95. Greenblatt DJ, von Moltke LL, Harmatz JS, etal. Short-term exposure to low-dose ritonavir impairs clearance and enhances adverse effects of trazodone. J Clin Pharmacol. 2003;43(4):414-422.
96. Hogeland GW, Swindells S, McNabb JC, Kashuba AD, Yee GC, Lindley CM. Lopinavir/ritonavir reduces bupropion plasma concentrations in healthy subjects. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2007;81(1):69-75.
97. Merry C, Mulcahy F, Barry M, Gibbons S, Back D. Saquinavir interaction with midazolam: pharmacokinetic considerations when prescribing protease inhibitors for patients with HIV disease. AIDS. 1997;11(2):268-269.
98. Schmitt C, Hofmann C, Riek M, Patel A, Zwanziger E. Effect of saquinavir-ritonavir on cytochrome P450 3A4 activity in healthy volunteers using midazolam as a probe. Pharmacotherapy. 2009;29(10): 1175-1181.
99. Brackett CC. Severe prolonged sedation associated with coadministration of protease inhibitors and intravenous midazolam during bronchoscopy: a commentary. Pharmacotherapy. 2013;33(5):e85-e86.
100. Greenblatt DJ, von Moltke LL, Daily JP, Harmatz JS, Shader RI. Extensive impairment of triazolam and alprazolam clearance by short-term low-dose ritonavir: the clinical dilemma of concurrent inhibition and induction. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1999;19(4):293-296.
101. Owens RC Jr. QT prolongation with antimicrobial agents: understanding the significance. Drugs. 2004;64(10):1091-1124.
102. Owens RC Jr, Nolin TD. Antimicrobial-associated QT interval prolongation: pointes of interest. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;43(12): 1603-1611.
103. Baciewicz AM, Chrisman CR, Finch CK, Self TH. Update on rifampin, rifabutin, and rifapentine drug interactions. Curr Med Res Opin. 2013;29(1):1-12.
104. De Ponti F, Poluzzi E, Cavalli A, Recanatini M, Montanaro N. Safety of non-antiarrhythmic drugs that prolong the QT interval or induce torsade de pointes: an overview. Drug Saf. 2002;25(4):263-286.
105. Krishna G, Moton A, Ma L, Martinho M, Seiberling M, McLeod J. Effects of oral posaconazole on the pharmacokinetics of atazanavir alone and with ritonavir or with efavirenz in healthy adult volunteers. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2009;51(4):437-444.
106. Yoganathan K, David L, Williams C, Jones K. Cushing's syndrome with adrenal suppression induced by inhaled budesonide due to a ritonavir drug interaction in a woman with HIV infection. Intl J STD AIDS. 2012;23(7):520-521.
107. Frankel JK, Packer CD. Cushing's syndrome due to antiretroviral-budesonide interaction. Ann Pharmacother. 2011;45(6):823-824.
108. Penzak SR, Formentini E, Alfaro RM, Long M, Natarajan V, Kovacs J. Prednisolone pharmacokinetics in the presence and absence of ritonavir after oral prednisone administration to healthy volunteers. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2005;40(5):573-580.
109. Nieminen TH, Hagelberg NM, Saari TI, etal. Oxycodone concentrations are greatly increased by the concomitant use of ritonavir or lopinavir/ritonavir. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2010;66(10):977-985.
110. Clarke S, Mulcahy F, Bergin C, etal. Absence of opioid withdrawal symptoms in patients receiving methadone and the protease inhibitor lopinavir-ritonavir. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;34(8):1143-1145.
111. Bart PA, Rizzardi PG, Gallant S, etal. Methadone blood concentrations are decreased by the administration of abacavir plus amprenavir. Ther Drug Monit. 2001;23(5):553-555.
112. Sekar V, Tomaka F, Lefebvre E, etal. Pharmacokinetic interactions between darunavir/ritonavir and opioid maintenance therapy using methadone or buprenorphine/naloxone. J Clin Pharmacol. 2011;51(2): 271-278.
113. Jamois C, Smith P, Morrison R, etal. Effect of saquinavir/ritonavir (1000/100mg bid) on the pharmacokinetics of methadone in opiate-dependent HIV-negative patients on stable methadone maintenance therapy. Addict Biol. 2009;14(3):321-327.
114. Brown TT, Qaqish RB. Antiretroviral therapy and the prevalence of osteopenia and osteoporosis: a meta-analytic review. AIDS. 2006;20(17):2165-2174.
115. Walker Harris V, Brown TT. Bone loss in the HIV-infected patient: evidence, clinical implications, and treatment strategies. J Infect Dis. 2012;205 Suppl 3:S391-S398.
116. Torti C, Mazziotti G, Soldini PA, etal. High prevalence of radiological vertebral fractures in HIV-infected males. Endocrine. 2012;41(3): 512-517.
117. Young B, Dao CN, Buchacz K, Baker R, Brooks JT; for HIV Outpatient Study (HOPS) Investigators. Increased rates of bone fracture among HIV-infected persons in the HIV Outpatient Study (HOPS) compared with the US general population, 2000-2006. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52(8):1061-1068.
118. Bolland MJ, Grey AB, Horne AM, etal. Annual zoledronate increases bone density in highly active antiretroviral therapy-treated human immunodeficiency virus-infected men: a randomized controlled trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;92(4):1283-1288.
119. Rozenberg S, Lanoy E, Bentata M, etal; for ANRS 120 Fosivir Study Group. Effect of alendronate on HIV-associated osteoporosis: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, 96-week trial (ANRS 120). AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2012;28(9):972-980.
120. Beers MH, Dang J, Hasegawa J, Tamai IY. Influence of hospitalization on drug therapy in the elderly. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1989;37(8):679-683.
121. Bedell SE, Jabbour S, Goldberg R, etal. Discrepancies in the use of medications: their extent and predictors in an outpatient practice. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160(14):2129-2134.
122. Wilson IB, Schoen C, Neuman P, etal. Physician-patient communication about prescription medication nonadherence: a 50-state study of America's seniors. J Gen Intern Med. 2007;22(1):6-12.
123. Bayoumi I, Howard M, Holbrook AM, Schabort I. Interventions to improve medication reconciliation in primary care. Ann Pharmacother. 2009;43(10):1667-1675.
124. Steinman MA, Hanlon JT. Managing medications in clinically complex elders: "There's got to be a happy medium". JAMA. 2010;304(14): 1592-1601.
125. Osterberg L, Blaschke T. Adherence to medication. N Eng J Med. 2005;353(5):487-497.
126. Boyd CM, Darer J, Boult C, Fried LP, Boult L, Wu AW. Clinical practice guidelines and quality of care for older patients with multiple comorbid disease: implications for pay for performance. JAMA. 2005;294(6):716-724.
127. Rochon PA, Stukel TA, Sykora K, etal. Atypical antipsychotics and parkinsonism. Arch Int Med. 2005;165(16):1882-1888.
128. Clarke N, Kabadi UM. Optimizing treatment of hypothyroidism. Treat Endocrinol. 2004;3(4):217-221.
129. Wolf MS, Shekelle P, Choudhry NK, Agnew-Blais J, Parker RM, Shrank WH. Variability in pharmacy interpretations of physician prescriptions. Med Care. 2009;47(3):370-373.
130. Wolf MS, Curtis LM, Waite K, etal. Helping patients simplify and safely use complex prescription regimens. Arch Intern Med. 2011;171(4):300-305.
131. Work Group for HIV and Aging Consensus Panel. Summary report from the Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Aging Consensus Project: treatment strategies for clinicians managing older individuals with the human immunodeficiency virus. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2012;60(5):974-979.
132. Hanlon JT, Weinberger M, Samsa GP, etal. A randomized, controlled trial of a clinical pharmacist intervention to improve inappropriate prescribing in elderly outpatients with polypharmacy. Am J Med. 1996;100(4):428-437.
133. Vinks TH, Egberts TC, de Lange TM, de Koning FH. Pharmacist-based medication review reduces potential drug-related problems in the elderly: the SMOG controlled trial. Drugs Aging. 2009;26(2): 123-133.
134. Waters L, Patterson B, Scourfield A, etal. A dedicated clinic for HIV-positive individuals over 50 years of age: a multidisciplinary experience. Int J STD AIDS. 2012;23(8):546-552.
135. Edmunds-Ogbuokiri J. Clinically significant drug interactions in the HIV-infected elderly. HIV Clin. 2011;23(2):12-15.