Early life adversity reduces stress reactivity and enhances impulsive behavior: Implications for health behaviors

International Journal of Psychophysiology

Volumn 90, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 8-16

  Lovallo, William R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Addiction; Affect; Cognition; Cortisol; Early life adversity; Impulsivity; Stress reactivity

Indexed keywords

CATECHOL METHYLTRANSFERASE; HYDROCORTISONE; SEROTONIN;

AFFECT; ALCOHOL ABUSE; ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; ALCOHOLISM; ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR; ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER; AVOIDANCE BEHAVIOR; BEHAVIORAL STRESS; BRAIN FUNCTION; COGNITION; COGNITIVE DEFECT; COPING BEHAVIOR; DOPAMINE RELEASE; DOPAMINERGIC ACTIVITY; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; GENETIC POLYMORPHISM; HEALTH BEHAVIOR; HEART RATE; HEREDITY; HIGH RISK BEHAVIOR; HUMAN; HYDROCORTISONE BLOOD LEVEL; HYDROCORTISONE RELEASE; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; IMPULSIVENESS; INTELLIGENCE; LIMBIC SYSTEM; MENTAL STRESS; PERSONAL EXPERIENCE; PERSONALITY; PREFRONTAL CORTEX; REVIEW; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; SOCIAL STATUS; SOCIALIZATION; STRIA TERMINALIS; SUBSTANCE ABUSE; TEMPERAMENT; WORKING MEMORY;

5-HT; ADDICTION; AFFECT; ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER; ASPD; CALIFORNIA PERSONALITY INVENTORY SOCIABILITY SCALE; CATECHOL-O-METHYLTRANSFERASE; COGNITION; COMT; CORTISOL; CPI-SO; EARLY LIFE ADVERSITY; FH+; FH-; HPA; HYPOTHALAMIC-PITUITARY-ADRENOCORTICAL AXIS; IMPULSIVITY; MAOA; MONOAMINEOXIDASE A; NEGATIVE FAMILY HISTORY OF ALCOHOLISM; OFHP; OKLAHOMA FAMILY HEALTH PATTERNS; POSITIVE FAMILY HISTORY OF ALCOHOLISM; SEROTONIN; SES; SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS; STRESS REACTIVITY;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; FEMALE; HEALTH BEHAVIOR; HUMANS; HYDROCORTISONE; IMPULSIVE BEHAVIOR; LIFE CHANGE EVENTS; MALE; STRESS, PSYCHOLOGICAL; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 84879387163     PISSN: 01678760     EISSN: 18727697     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2012.10.006     Document Type: Review

References (121)

1. Adinoff B., Junghanns K., Kiefer F., Krishnan-Sarin S. Suppression of the HPA axis stress-response: implications for relapse. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research 2005, 29:1351-1355.
2. Aizenstein H.J., Butters M.A., Wu M., Mazurkewicz L.M., Stenger V.A., Gianaros P.J., Becker J.T., Reynolds C.F., Carter C.S. Altered functioning of the executive control circuit in late-life depression: episodic and persistent phenomena. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 2009, 17:30-42.
3. Absi M. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical responses to psychological stress and risk for smoking relapse. International Journal of Psychophysiology 2006, 59:218-227.
4. Absi M., Bongard S., Buchanan T., Pincomb G.A., Licinio J., Lovallo W.R. Cardiovascular and neuroendocrine adjustment to public speaking and mental arithmetic stressors. Psychophysiology 1997, 34:266-275.
5. Alessi S.M., Petry N.M. Pathological gambling severity is associated with impulsivity in a delay discounting procedure. Behavioural Processes 2003, 64:345-354.
6. Atkins R. The association of childhood personality on sexual risk taking during adolescence. The Journal of School Health 2008, 78:594-600.
7. Barnow S., Schuckit M.A., Lucht M., John U., Freyberger H.J. The importance of a positive family history of alcoholism, parental rejection and emotional warmth, behavioral problems and peer substance use for alcohol problems in teenagers: a path analysis. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 2002, 63:305-315.
8. Bechara A., Damasio H. Decision-making and addiction (part I): impaired activation of somatic states in substance dependent individuals when pondering decisions with negative future consequences. Neuropsychologia 2002, 40:1675-1689.
9. Belsky J., Pluess M. Beyond diathesis stress: differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin 2009, 135:885-908.
10. Bernardy N.C., King A.C., Parsons O.A., Lovallo W.R. Altered cortisol response in sober alcoholics: an examination of contributing factors. Alcohol 1996, 13:493-498.
11. Blum K., Kozlowski G.P. Ethanol and neuromodulator interactions: a cascade model of reward. Progress in Alcohol Research 1990, 2:131-149.
12. Brewer-Smyth K., Burgess A.W. Childhood sexual abuse by a family member, salivary cortisol, and homicidal behavior of female prison inmates. Nursing Research 2008, 57:166-174.
13. Bruce J., Tarullo A.R., Gunnar M.R. Disinhibited social behavior among internationally adopted children. Development and Psychopathology 2009, 21:157-171.
14. Cadoret R.J., Yates W.R., Troughton E., Woodworth G., Stewart M.A. Adoption study demonstrating two genetic pathways to drug abuse. Archives of General Psychiatry 1995, 52:42-52.
15. Carpenter L.L., Carvalho J.P., Tyrka A.R., Wier L.M., Mello A.F., Mello M.F., Anderson G.M., Wilkinson C.W., Price L.H. Decreased adrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol responses to stress in healthy adults reporting significant childhood maltreatment. Biological Psychiatry 2007, 62:1080-1087.
16. Carpenter L.L., Shattuck T.T., Tyrka A.R., Geracioti T.D., Price L.H. Effect of childhood physical abuse on cortisol stress response. Psychopharmacology 2011, 214:367-375.
17. Carroll D., Lovallo W.R., Phillips A.C. Are large physiological reactions to acute psychological stress always bad for health?. Social and Personality Psychology Compass 2009, 3:725-743.
18. Caspi A., McClay J., Moffitt T.E., Mill J., Martin J., Craig I.W., Taylor A., Poulton R. Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science 2002, 297:851-854.
19. Caspi A., Sugden K., Moffitt T.E., Taylor A., Craig I.W., Harrington H., McClay J., Mill J., Martin J., Braithwaite A., Poulton R. Influence of life stress on depression: moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science 2003, 301:386-389.
20. Caspi A., Moffitt T.E., Morgan J., Rutter M., Taylor A., Arseneault L., Tully L., Jacobs C., Kim-Cohen J., Polo-Tomas M. Maternal expressed emotion predicts children's antisocial behavior problems: using monozygotic-twin differences to identify environmental effects on behavioral development. Developmental Psychology 2004, 40:149-161.
21. Chapman K., Tarter R.E., Kirisci L., Cornelius M.D. Childhood neurobehavior disinhibition amplifies the risk of substance use disorder: interaction of parental history and prenatal alcohol exposure. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics 2007, 28:219-224.
22. Chassin L., Fora D.B., King K.M. Trajectories of alcohol and drug use and dependence from adolescence to adulthood: the effects of familial alcoholism and personality. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2004, 113:483-498.
23. Chen E., Cohen S., Miller G.E. How low socioeconomic status affects 2-year hormonal trajectories in children. Psychological Science 2010, 21:31-37.
24. Chida Y., Hamer M. Chronic psychosocial factors and acute physiological responses to laboratory-induced stress in healthy populations: a quantitative review of 30 years of investigations. Psychological Bulletin 2008, 134:829-885.
25. Couture S., Brown T.G., Ouimet M.C., Gianoulakis C., Tremblay J., Carbonneau R. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis response to stress in male DUI recidivists. Accident Analysis and Prevention 2008, 40:246-253.
26. Daversa M.T. Early environmental predictors of the affective and interpersonal constructs of psychopathy. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 2010, 54:6-21.
27. Dawes M.A., Dorn L.D., Moss H.B., Yao J.K., Kirisci L., Ammerman R.T., Tarter R.E. Hormonal and behavioral homeostasis in boys at risk for substance abuse. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 1999, 55:165-176.
28. De Bellis M.D., Keshavan M.S., Clark D.B., Casey B.J., Giedd J.N., Boring A.M., Frustaci K., Ryan N.D. A.E. Bennett Research Award. Developmental traumatology. Part II: brain development. Biological Psychiatry 1999, 45:1271-1284.
29. Dohrenwend B.P. The role of adversity and stress in psychopathology: some evidence and its implications for theory and research. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 2000, 41:1-19.
30. Dohrenwend B.P., Levav I., Shrout P.E., Schwartz S., Naveh G., Link B.G., Skodol A.E., Stueve A. Socioeconomic status and psychiatric disorders: the causation-selection issue. Science 1992, 255:946-952.
31. Eaves L.J., Prom E.C., Silberg J.L. The mediating effect of parental neglect on adolescent and young adult anti-sociality: a longitudinal study of twins and their parents. Behavior Genetics 2010, 40:425-437.
32. Egan M.F., Kojima M., Callicott J.H., Goldberg T.E., Kolachana B.S., Bertolino A., Zaitsev E., Gold B., Goldman D., Dean M., Lu B., Weinberger D.R. The BDNF val66met polymorphism affects activity-dependent secretion of BDNF and human memory and hippocampal function. Cell 2003, 112:257-269.
33. Ehrensaft M.K., Moffitt T.E., Caspi A. Clinically abusive relationships in an unselected birth cohort: men's and women's participation and developmental antecedents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2004, 113:258-270.
34. Eisenberg N., Zhou Q., Losoya S.H., Fabes R.A., Shepard S.A., Murphy B.C., Reiser M., Guthrie I.K., Cumberland A. The relations of parenting, effortful control, and ego control to children's emotional expressivity. Child Development 2003, 74:875-895.
35. Eisenberg N., Ma Y., Chang L., Zhou Q., West S.G., Aiken L. Relations of effortful control, reactive undercontrol, and anger to Chinese children's adjustment. Development and Psychopathology 2007, 19:385-409.
36. Ellis B.J., Boyce W.T. Biological sensitivity to context. Current Directions in Psychological Science 2008, 17:183-187.
37. Ellis B.J., Jackson J.J., Boyce W.T. The stress response systems: universality and adaptive individual differences. Developmental Review 2006, 26:175-212.
38. Elzinga B.M., Roelofs K., Tollenaar M.S., Bakvis P., van Pelt J., Spinhoven P. Diminished cortisol responses to psychosocial stress associated with lifetime adverse events a study among healthy young subjects. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2008, 33:227-237.
39. Engert V., Efanov S.I., Dedovic K., Duchesne A., Dagher A., Pruessner J.C. Perceived early-life maternal care and the cortisol response to repeated psychosocial stress. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience 2010, 35:370-377.
40. Enoch M.A., Steer C.D., Newman T.K., Gibson N., Goldman D. Early life stress, MAOA, and gene-environment interactions predict behavioral disinhibition in children. Genes, Brain, and Behavior 2010, 9:65-74.
41. Errico A.L., Parsons O.A., King A.C., Lovallo W.R. Attenuated cortisol response to biobehavioral stressors in sober alcoholics. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 1993, 54:393-398.
42. Everson S.A., McKey B.S., Lovallo W.R. Effect of trait hostility on cardiovascular responses to harassment in young men. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine 1995, 2:172-191.
43. Felitti V.J., Anda R.F., Nordenberg D., Williamson D.F., Spitz A.M., Edwards V., Koss M.P., Marks J.S. Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults. The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 1998, 14:245-258.
44. Fisher P.A., Stoolmiller M., Gunnar M.R., Burraston B.O. Effects of a therapeutic intervention for foster preschoolers on diurnal cortisol activity. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2007, 32:892-905.
45. Foley D.L., Eaves L.J., Wormley B., Silberg J.L., Maes H.H., Kuhn J., Riley B. Childhood adversity, monoamine oxidase a genotype, and risk for conduct disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 2004, 61:738-744.
46. Folkman S., Lazarus R.S. Coping as a mediator of emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1988, 54:466-475.
47. Gerra G., Angioni L., Zaimovic A., Moi G., Bussandri M., Bertacca S., Santoro G., Gardini S., Caccavari R., Nicoli M.A. Substance use among high-school students: relationships with temperament, personality traits, and parental care perception. Substance Use & Misuse 2004, 39:345-367.
48. Gerra G., Zaimovic A., Garofano L., Ciusa F., Moi G., Avanzini P., Talarico E., Gardini F., Brambilla F., Manfredini M., Donnini C. Perceived parenting behavior in the childhood of cocaine users: relationship with genotype and personality traits. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics 2007, 144B:52-57.
49. Ginty A.T., Phillips A.C., Der G., Deary I.J., Carroll D. Cognitive ability and simple reaction time predict cardiac reactivity in the West of Scotland Twenty-07 Study. Psychophysiology 2011, 48:1022-1027.
50. Ginty A.T., Phillips A.C., Roseboom T.J., Carroll D., Derooij S.R. Cardiovascular and cortisol reactions to acute psychological stress and cognitive ability in the Dutch Famine Birth Cohort Study. Psychophysiology 2012, 49:391-400.
51. Glahn D.C., Lovallo W.R., Fox P.T. Reduced amygdala activation in young adults at high risk of alcoholism: studies from the Oklahoma family health patterns project. Biological Psychiatry 2007, 61:1306-1309.
52. Goldberg T.E., Egan M.F., Gscheidle T., Coppola R., Weickert T., Kolachana B.S., Goldman D., Weinberger D.R. Executive subprocesses in working memory: relationship to catechol-O-methyltransferase Val158Met genotype and schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 2003, 60:889-896.
53. Gordis E.B., Granger D.A., Susman E.J., Trickett P.K. Salivary alpha amylase-cortisol asymmetry in maltreated youth. Hormones and Behavior 2008, 53:96-103.
54. Gough H. Theory, development, and interpretation of the CPI socialization scale. Psychological Reports 1994, 75:651-700.
55. Gutman D.A., Nemeroff C.B. Persistent central nervous system effects of an adverse early environment: clinical and preclinical studies. Physiology & Behavior 2003, 79:471-478.
56. Hariri A.R., Mattay V.S., Tessitore A., Kolachana B., Fera F., Goldman D., Egan M.F., Weinberger D.R. Serotonin transporter genetic variation and the response of the human amygdala. Science 2002, 297:400-403.
57. Hariri A.R., Drabant E.M., Munoz K.E., Kolachana B.S., Mattay V.S., Egan M.F., Weinberger D.R. A susceptibility gene for affective disorders and the response of the human amygdala. Archives of General Psychiatry 2005, 62:146-152.
58. Hawes D.J., Brennan J., Dadds M.R. Cortisol, callous-unemotional traits, and pathways to antisocial behavior. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 2009, 22:357-362.
59. Heilig M., Koob G.F. A key role for corticotropin-releasing factor in alcohol dependence. Trends in Neurosciences 2007, 30:399-406.
60. Heinz A., Braus D.F., Smolka M.N., Wrase J., Puls I., Hermann D., Klein S., Grusser S.M., Flor H., Schumann G., Mann K., Buchel C. Amygdala-prefrontal coupling depends on a genetic variation of the serotonin transporter. Nature Neuroscience 2005, 8:20-21.
61. Hicks B.M., Krueger R.F., Iacono W.G., McGue M., Patrick C.J. Family transmission and heritability of externalizing disorders: a twin-family study. Archives of General Psychiatry 2004, 61:922-928.
62. Hicks B.M., DiRago A.C., Iacono W.G., McGue M. Gene-environment interplay in internalizing disorders: consistent findings across six environmental risk factors. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 2009, 50:1309-1317.
63. Hinshaw S.P. Externalizing behavior problems and academic underachievement in childhood and adolescence: causal relationships and underlying mechanisms. Psychological Bulletin 1992, 111:127-155.
64. Jackson K.M., Sher K.J. Alcohol use disorders and psychological distress: a prospective state-trait analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2003, 112:599-613.
65. Jaffee S.R., Caspi A., Moffitt T.E., Taylor A. Physical maltreatment victim to antisocial child: evidence of an environmentally mediated process. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2004, 113:44-55.
66. Jaffee S.R., Belsky J., Harrington H., Caspi A., Moffitt T.E. When parents have a history of conduct disorder: how is the caregiving environment affected?. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2006, 115:309-319.
67. Jennings J.R., Kamarck T.W., Everson-Rose S.A., Kaplan G.A., Manuck S.B., Salonen J.T. Exaggerated blood pressure responses during mental stress are prospectively related to enhanced carotid atherosclerosis in middle-aged Finnish men. Circulation 2004, 110:2198-2203.
68. Kapuku G.L., Treiber F.A., Davis H.C. Relationships among socioeconomic status, stress induced changes in cortisol, and blood pressure in African American males. Annals of Behavioral Medicine 2002, 24:320-325.
69. Kaufman J., Yang B.Z., Douglas-Palumberi H., Houshyar S., Lipschitz D., Krystal J.H., Gelernter J. Social supports and serotonin transporter gene moderate depression in maltreated children. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2004, 101:17316-17321.
70. Kerr D.C., Capaldi D.M., Pears K.C., Owen L.D. A prospective three generational study of fathers' constructive parenting: influences from family of origin, adolescent adjustment, and offspring temperament. Developmental Psychology 2009, 45:1257-1275.
71. Kirschbaum C., Pirke K.M., Hellhammer D.H. The 'Trier Social Stress Test'-a tool for investigating psychobiological stress responses in a laboratory setting. Neuropsychobiology 1993, 28:76-81.
72. Klaassens E.R., van Noorden M.S., Giltay E.J., van Pelt J., van Veen T., Zitman F.G. Effects of childhood trauma on HPA-axis reactivity in women free of lifetime psychopathol. Progress in neuro-psychopharmacology & biological psychiatry 2009, 33:889-894.
73. Klonsky E.D., Oltmanns T.F., Turkheimer E., Fiedler E.R. Recollections of conflict with parents and family support in the personality disorders. Journal of Personality Disorders 2000, 14:327-338.
74. Koob G.F. Alcoholism: allostasis and beyond. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research 2003, 27:232-243.
75. Koob G., Kreek M.J. Stress, dysregulation of drug reward pathways, and the transition to drug dependence. The American Journal of Psychiatry 2007, 164:1149-1159.
76. Kraft A.J., Luecken L.J. Childhood parental divorce and cortisol in young adulthood: evidence for mediation by family income. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2009, 34:1363-1369.
77. Kuperman S., Chan G., Kramer J.R., Bierut L., Bucholz K.K., Fox L., Hesselbrock V., Numberger J.I., Reich T., Reich W., Schuckit M.A. Relationship of age of first drink to child behavioral problems and family psychopathology. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research 2005, 29:1869-1876.
78. Lazarus R.S., Folkman S. Stress, Appraisal and Coping 1984, Springer, New York.
79. Liu J., Raine A., Venables P.H., Mednick S.A. Malnutrition at age 3 years and externalizing behavior problems at ages 8, 11, and 17 years. The American Journal of Psychiatry 2004, 161:2005-2013.
80. Lovallo W.R. Cardiovascular reactivity: mechanisms and pathways to cardiovascular disease. International Journal of Psychophysiology 2005, 58:119-132.
81. Lovallo W.R. Cortisol secretion patterns in addiction and addiction risk. International Journal of Psychophysiology: Official Journal of the International Organization of Psychophysiology 2006, 59:195-202.
82. Lovallo W.R. Individual differences in response to stress and risk for addiction. Stress and Addiction: Biological and Psychological Mechanisms 2007, 227-248. Academic Press, Burlington, MA. First edn. M. Absi (Ed.).
83. Lovallo W.R. Do low levels of stress reactivity signal poor states of health?. Biological Psychology 2011, 86:121-128.
84. Lovallo W.R., Gerin W. Psychophysiological reactivity: mechanisms and pathways to cardiovascular disease. Psychosomatic Medicine 2003, 65:36-45.
85. Lovallo W.R., Dickensheets S.L., Myers D.A., Thomas T.L., Nixon S.J. Blunted stress cortisol response in abstinent alcoholic and polysubstance-abusing men. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research 2000, 24:651-658.
86. Lovallo W.R., Farag N.H., Sorocco K.H., Cohoon A.J., Vincent A.S. Lifetime adversity leads to blunted stress axis reactivity: studies from the Oklahoma Family Health Patterns Project. Biological Psychiatry 2012, 71:344-349.
87. Lovallo, W.R., Farag, N.H., Sorocco, K.H., Acheson, A., Cohoon, A.J., Vincent, A.S., in press. Early life adversity contributes to impaired cognition and impulsive behavior in persons with a family history of alcoholism: Studies from the Oklahoma Family Health Patterns Project. Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res.
88. Luecken L.J., Appelhans B.M. Early parental loss and salivary cortisol in young adulthood: the moderating role of family environment. Development and Psychopathology 2006, 18:295-308.
89. Luecken L.J., Lemery K.S. Early caregiving and physiological stress responses. Clinical Psychology Review 2004, 24:171-191.
90. Luecken L.J., Kraft A., Hagan M.J. Negative relationships in the family-of-origin predict attenuated cortisol in emerging adults. Hormones and Behavior 2009, 55:412-417.
91. MacMillan H.L., Georgiades K., Duku E.K., Shea A., Steiner M., Niec A., Tanaka M., Gensey S., Spree S., Vella E., Walsh C.A., De Bellis M.D., Van der Meulen J., Boyle M.H., Schmidt L.A. Cortisol response to stress in female youths exposed to childhood maltreatment: results of the youth mood project. Biological Psychiatry 2009, 66:62-68.
92. Marinelli M. Dopaminergic reward pathways and effects of stress. Stress and Addictions: Biological and Psychological Mechanisms 2007, 41-83. Academic Press, Buflington, MA. First edn. M. Absi (Ed.).
93. Masten A.S., Hubbard J.J., Gest S.D., Tellegen A., Garmezy N., Ramirez M. Competence in the context of adversity: pathways to resilience and maladaptation from childhood to late adolescence. Development and Psychopathology 1999, 11:143-169.
94. Maughan B., McCarthy G. Childhood adversities and psychosocial disorders. British Medical Bulletin 1997, 53:156-169.
95. McCrory E., De Brito S.A., Viding E. Research review: the neurobiology and genetics of maltreatment and adversity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 2010, 51:1079-1095.
96. Meaney M.J. Maternal care, gene expression, and the transmission of individual differences in stress reactivity across generations. Annual Review of Neuroscience 2001, 24:1161-1192.
97. Moran-Santa Maria M.M., McRae-Clark A.L., Back S.E., DeSantis S.M., Baker N.L., Spratt E.G., Simpson A.N., Brady K.T. Influence of cocaine dependence and early life stress on pituitary-adrenal axis responses to CRH and the Trier social stressor. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2010, 35:1492-1500.
98. Moss H.B., Vanyukov M.M., Martin C.S. Salivary cortisol responses and the risk for substance abuse in prepubertal boys. Biological Psychiatry 1995, 38:547-555.
99. Moss H.B., Vanyukov M., Yao J.K., Kirillova G.P. Salivary cortisol responses in prepubertal boys: the effects of parental substance abuse and association with drug use behavior during adolescence. Biological Psychiatry 1999, 45:1293-1299.
100. Murali R., Chen E. Exposure to violence and cardiovascular and neuroendocrine measures in adolescents. Annals of Behavioral Medicine 2005, 30:155-163.
101. Olds D., Henderson C.R., Cole R., Eckenrode J., Kitzman H., Luckey D., Pettitt L., Sidora K., Morris P., Powers J. Long-term effects of nurse home visitation on children's criminal and antisocial behavior: 15-year follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association 1998, 280:1238-1244.
102. Panknin T.L., Dickensheets S.L., Nixon S.J., Lovallo W.R. Attenuated heart rate responses to public speaking in individuals with alcohol dependence. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research 2002, 26:841-847.
103. Patrick C.J., Edens J.F., Poythress N.G., Lilienfeld S.O., Benning S.D. Construct validity of the psychopathic personality inventory two-factor model with offenders. Psychological Assessment 2006, 18:204-208.
104. Prom-Wormley E.C., Eaves L.J., Foley D.L., Gardner C.O., Archer K.J., Wormley B.K., Maes H.H., Riley B.P., Silberg J.L. Monoamine oxidase A and childhood adversity as risk factors for conduct disorder in females. Psychological Medicine 2009, 39:579-590.
105. Reif A., Rosler M., Freitag C.M., Schneider M., Eujen A., Kissling C., Wenzler D., Jacob C.P., Retz-Junginger P., Thome J., Lesch K.P., Retz W. Nature and nurture predispose to violent behavior: serotonergic genes and adverse childhood environment. Neuropsychopharmacology 2007, 32:2375-2383.
106. Reuter J., Raedler T., Rose M., Hand I., Glascher J., Buchel C. Pathological gambling is linked to reduced activation of the mesolimbic reward system. Nature Neuroscience 2005, 8:147-148.
107. Schuckit M.A., Smith T.L., Barnow S., Preuss U., Luczak S., Radziminski S. Correlates of externalizing symptoms in children from families of alcoholics and controls. Alcohol and Alcoholism 2003, 38:559-567.
108. Schwartz C.E., Wright C.I., Shin L.M., Kagan J., Rauch S.L. Inhibited and uninhibited infants "grown up": adult amygdalar response to novelty. Science 2003, 300:1952-1953.
109. Shedler J., Block J. Adolescent drug use and psychological health. A longitudinal inquiry. The American Psychologist 1990, 45(5):612-630.
110. Sher K.J., Walitzer K.S., Wood P.K., Brent E.E. Characteristics of children of alcoholics: putative risk factors, substance use and abuse, and psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1991, 100:427-448.
111. Slutske W.S., Heath A.C., Madden P.A., Bucholz K.K., Statham D.J., Martin N.G. Personality and the genetic risk for alcohol dependence. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2002, 111:124-133.
112. Sorocco K.H., Lovallo W.R., Vincent A.S., Collins F.L. Blunted hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis responsivity to stress in persons with a family history of alcoholism. International Journal of Psychophysiology 2006, 59:210-217.
113. Takahashi T. Cortisol levels and time-discounting of monetary gain in humans. Neuroreport 2004, 15:2145-2147.
114. Tarter R.E., Kirisci L., Habeych M., Reynolds M., Vanyukov M. Neurobehavior disinhibition in childhood predisposes boys to substance use disorder by young adulthood: direct and mediated etiologic pathways. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2004, 73:121-132.
115. van Honk J., Schutter D.J., Hermans E.J., Putman P. Low cortisol levels and the balance between punishment sensitivity and reward dependency. Neuroreport 2003, 14:1993-1996.
116. Van Voorhees E., Scarpa A. The effects of child maltreatment on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Trauma, Violence & Abuse 2004, 5:333-352.
117. Vaughn M.G., Fu Q., Beaver K.M., Delisi M., Perron B.E., Howard M.O. Effects of childhood adversity on bullying and cruelty to animals in the United States: findings from a national sample. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 2011, 26:3509-3525.
118. Weder N., Yang B.Z., Douglas-Palumberi H., Massey J., Krystal J.H., Gelernter J., Kaufman J. MAOA genotype, maltreatment, and aggressive behavior: the changing impact of genotype at varying levels of trauma. Biological Psychiatry 2009, 65:417-424.
119. Widom C.S., Brzustowicz L.M. MAOA and the "cycle of violence:" childhood abuse and neglect, MAOA genotype, and risk for violent and antisocial behavior. Biological Psychiatry 2006, 60:684-689.
120. Wilsnack S.C., Vogeltanz N.D., Klassen A.D., Harris T.R. Childhood sexual abuse and women's substance abuse: national survey findings. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 1997, 58:264-271.
121. Yeomans M.R., Leitch M., Mobini S. Impulsivity is associated with the disinhibition but not restraint factor from the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire. Appetite 2008, 50:469-476.