Collecting nature: Practices, styles, and narratives

Osiris

Volumn 27, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 303-340

  Strasser, Bruno J ^a,b  

^a YALE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF GENEVA   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84878351205     PISSN: 03697827     EISSN: 19338287     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/667832     Document Type: Article

References (246)

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4. A special report featured on the cover of the Economist was titled "The Data Deluge and How to Handle It" (February 27, 2010)
5. Wired titled its issue on the subject "The End of Science" (July 16, 2008)
6. Nature had a cover on "Big Data" (vol. 455, no. 7209 [2008]).
7. For "data tsunami," see Anthony J. G. Hey, Stuart Tansley, and Kristin Tolle, The Fourth Paradigm: Data-Intensive Scientific Discovery (Redmond, Wash., 2009), 117, 131
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10. Wired, "End of Science" (cit. n. 1), cover.
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15. Peter J. Bowler and Iwan Rhys Morus, Making Modern Science: A Historical Survey (Chicago, 2005)
16. Peter Dear, The Intelligibility of Nature: How Science Makes Sense of the World (Chicago, 2006).
17. On the history of natural history, see Nicholas Jardine, James A. Secord, and Emma C. Spary, eds., Cultures of Natural History (New York, 1996)
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32. Bruno J. Strasser, "Institutionalizing Molecular Biology in Post-war Europe: A Comparative Study," Stud. Hist. Phil. Biol. Biomed. Sci. 33 (2002): 533-64.
33. Michael R. Dietrich, "Paradox and Persuasion: Negotiating the Place of Molecular Evolution within Evolutionary Biology," J. Hist. Biol. 31 (1998): 85-111
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35. Wilson EO, Naturalist (Washington, D.C., 1994).
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44. Crombie A, Styles of Scientific Thinking in the European Tradition: The History of Argument and Explanation Especially in the Mathematical and Biomedical Sciences and Arts, 3 vols. (London, 1994).
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46. Pickstone J., Ways of Knowing: A New History of Science, Technology and Medicine (Manchester, 2000)
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48. Kwa C, Styles of Knowing: A New History of Science from Ancient Times to the Present (Pittsburgh, 2011).
49. Andrew Cunningham and Perry Williams, The Laboratory Revolution in Medicine (Cambridge, 1992).
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51. David N. Livingstone, Putting Science in Its Place: Geographies of Scientific Knowledge (Chicago, 2003)
52. D. A. Finnegan, "The Spatial Turn: Geographical Approaches in the History of Science," J. Hist. Biol. 41 (2008): 369-88
53. Simon Naylor, "Introduction: Historical Geographies of Science- Places, Contexts, Cartographies," Brit. J. Hist. Sci. 38 (2005): 1-12
54. S. Shapin, "Placing the View from Nowhere: Historical and Sociological Problems in the Location of Science," Trans. Inst. Brit. Geogr. 23 (1998): 5-12.
55. Ian F. McNeely and Lisa Wolverton, Reinventing Knowledge: From Alexandria to the Internet (New York, 2008).
56. On the different uses of the laboratory, see the "Focus" section "Laboratory History," Isis 99 (2008): 761-802.
57. Robert E. Kohler, Landscapes and Labscapes: Exploring the Lab-Field Border in Biology (Chicago, 2002).
58. Gregg Mitman and Richard W. Burkhardt Jr., "Struggling for Identity: The Study of Animal Behavior in America, 1930-1950," in The Expansion of American Biology, eds. Keith R. Benson, Jane Maienschein, and Ronald Rainger (New Brunswick, N.J., 1991), 164-94.
59. On places and practices, see Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space (Oxford, 1991). For a successful attempt at this in the history of science,
60. See Robert E. Kohler, "Place and Practice in Field Biology," Hist. Sci. 40 (2002): 189-210
61. Richard W. Burkhardt Jr., "The Leopard in the Garden: Life in Close Quarters at the Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle," Isis 98 (2007): 675-94.
62. Jack Ralph Kloppenburg, First the Seed: The Political Economy of Plant Biotechnology, 1492-2000 (Cambridge, 1988)
63. Susan E. Lederer, Flesh and Blood: Organ Transplantation and Blood Transfusion in Twentieth-Century America (Oxford, 2008)
64. Bronwyn Parry, Trading the Genome: Investigating the Commodification of Bio-information (New York, 2004).
65. Rudwick M., "George Cuvier's Paper Museum of Fossil Bones," Arch. Natur. Hist. 27 (2000): 51-68.
66. Ankete Heesen and Emma C. Spary, eds., Sammeln als Wissen: Das Sammeln und seine Wissenschaftsgeschichtliche Bedeutung (Göttingen, 2001).
67. Jardine, Secord, and Spary EC, Cultures of Natural History (cit. n. 7).
68. David Elliston Allen, The Naturalist in Britain: A Social History (London, 1976)
69. Douglas Cole, Captured Heritage: The Scramble for Northwest Coast Artifacts (Norman, Okla., 1995)
70. Simon J. Knell, The Culture of English Geology, 1815-1851: A Science Revealed through Its Collecting (Aldershot, 2000)
71. Robert E. Kohler, All Creatures: Naturalists, Collectors, and Biodiversity, 1850-1950 (Princeton, N.J., 2006)
72. Warwick Anderson, The Collectors of Lost Souls: Turning Kuru Scientists into Whitemen (Baltimore, 2008).
73. Kohler R, "Finders, Keepers: Collecting Sciences and Collecting Practice," Hist. Sci. 45 (2007): 428-54.
74. Kohler R, All Creatures (cit. n. 37), 433.
75. Ibid., 432.
76. Paula Findlen, Possessing Nature: Museums, Collecting, and Scientific Culture in Early Modern Italy (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1994)
77. Brian W. Ogilvie, The Science of Describing: Natural History in Renaissance Europe (Chicago, 2006).
78. Lucile H. Brockway, Science and Colonial Expansion: The Role of the British Royal Botanic Gardens (New York, 1979)
79. Richard W., Burkhardt Jr. K., "Naturalists' Practices and Nature's Empire: Paris and the Platypus, 1815-1833," Pacific Sci. 55 (2001): 327-41Londa L. Schiebinger and Claudia Swan, eds., Colonial Botany: Science, Commerce, and Politics in the Early Modern World (Philadelphia, 2005)
80. Daniela Bleichmar and Peter C. Mancall, eds., Collecting across Cultures: Material Exchanges in the Early Modern Atlantic World (Philadelphia, 2011).
81. Londa L. Schiebinger, Plants and Empire: Colonial Bioprospecting in the Atlantic World (Cambridge, Mass., 2004), chaps. 1-2.
82. See also Harold John Cook, Matters of Exchange: Commerce, Medicine, and Science in the Dutch Golden Age (New Haven, Conn., 2007).
83. Paula Findlen, "The Economy of Scientific Exchange in Early Modern Italy," in Patronage and Institutions: Science, Technology, and Medicine at the European Court, 1500-1750, ed. Bruce T. Moran (Rochester, N.Y., 1991), 5-24
84. Findlen R, Possessing Nature (cit. n. 41).
85. Philipp Blom, To Have and to Hold: An Intimate History of Collectors and Collecting (Woodstock, N.Y., 2003).
86. Spary E, Utopia's Garden: French Natural History from Old Regime to Revolution (Chicago, 2000), 77.
87. Fa-ti Fan, British Naturalists in Qing China: Science, Empire, and Cultural Encounter (Cambridge, Mass., 2003).
88. On the animal dealers, see Mark Barrow, "The Specimen Dealer: Entrepreneurial Natural History in America's Gilded Age," J. Hist. Biol. 33 (2000): 493-534
89. On hunters, Elizabeth Hanson, Animal Attractions: Nature on Display in American Zoos (Princeton, N.J., 2002), chap. 3.
90. Lyle Rexer and Rachel Klein, American Museum of Natural History: 125 Years of Expedition and Discovery (New York, 1995).
91. Douglas J. Preston, Dinosaurs in the Attic: An Excursion into the American Museum of Natural History (New York, 1986).
92. Kohler RE, All Creatures (cit. n. 37).
93. Schiebinger LL, Plants and Empire (cit. n. 43), chap. 1.
94. Peter Galison and Lorraine Daston, "Scientific Coordination as Ethos and Epistemology," in Instruments in Art and Science: On the Architectonics of Cultural Boundaries in the 17th Century, ed. Helmar Schramm, Ludger Schwarte, and Jan Lazardzig (Berlin, 2008), 296-333.
95. Mario Biagioli and Peter Galison, eds., Scientific Authorship: Credit and Intellectual Property in Science (New York, 2003).
96. For a useful perspective on the translation of various interests in a collecting network, see Susan Leigh Star and James R. Griesemer, "Institutional Ecology, 'Translations' and Boundary Objects: Amateurs and Professionals in Berkeley's Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, 1907-1939," Soc. Stud. Sci. 19 (1989): 387-420.
97. Anderson W, Collectors of Lost Souls (cit. n. 37).
98. Cole D, Captured Heritage (cit. n. 37).
99. Jim Endersby, Imperial Nature: Joseph Hooker and the Practices of Victorian Science (Chicago, 2008).
100. Spary EC, Utopia's Garden (cit. n. 46), 97.
101. Pomian K, Collectors and Curiosities: Paris and Venice, 1500-1800 (Cambridge, 1990).
102. For a rich account of cabinet collecting in the Renaissance and early modern period, see Blom M, To Have and to Hold (cit. n. 45).
103. David Elliston Allen, "Amateurs and Professionals," in The Cambridge History of Science, vol. 6, The Modern Biological and Earth Sciences, ed. Peter J. Bowler and John V. Pickstone (Cambridge, 2009), 15-33.
104. On how nomenclature rules shifted the power between museum and field collectors, and between European and New World collectors, see Christophe Bonneuil, "The Manufacture of Species: Kew Gardens, the Empire and the Standardisation of Taxonomic Practices in Late 19th Century Botany," in Instruments, Travel and Science: Itineraries of Precision from the Seventeenth to the Twentieth Century, ed. Marie-Noëlle Bourguet, Christian Licoppe, and Heinz Otto Sibum (New York, 2002), 189-215
105. Sharon E. Kingsland, The Evolution of American Ecology, 1890-2000 (Baltimore, 2005), chap. 2
106. Endersby J, Imperial Nature (cit. n. 58), chap. 8.
107. On the former, see Allen DE, Naturalist in Britain
108. on the latter, Kohler RE, All Creatures, chap. 2 (Both cit. n. 37),
109. Mark V. Barrow, A Passion for Birds: American Ornithology after Audubon (Princeton, N.J., 1998).
110. Kohler RE, All Creatures (cit. n. 37), 93.
111. Cited in Endersby J, Imperial Nature (cit. n. 58), 39.
112. J. F. A. Adams, "Is Botany a Suitable Study for Young Men," Science 9 (1887): 116-7 on 117.
113. This source is cited in, Philip J. Pauly, "Summer Resort and Scientific Discipline: Woods Hole and the Structure of American Biology," in The American Development of Biology, ed. Ronald Rainger, Keith R. Benson, and Jane Maienschein (Philadelphia, 1988), 121-50.
114. On women as a workforce, see Margaret W. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Before Affirmative Action, 1940-1972 (Baltimore, 1995), chap. 3
115. on women in surveys, Kohler RE, All Creatures (cit. n. 37), 215-20
116. on the gendering of biology at the turn of the century, Pauly PJ, "Summer Resort," (cit. n. 67), 129.
117. Cited in de Chadarevian S, Designs for Life (cit. n. 15), 89.
118. On the former, see Mary P. Winsor, Reading the Shape of Nature: Comparative Zoology at the Agassiz Museum, Science and Its Conceptual Foundations (Chicago, 1991)
119. on the latter, Léo F. Laporte, George Gaylord Simpson: Paleontologist and Evolutionist (New York, 2000).
120. Findlen P, Possessing Nature (cit. n. 41).
121. On the dual arrangement, see Lynn K. Nyhart, Modern Nature: The Rise of the Biological Perspective in Germany (Chicago, 2009), chap. 6
122. Mary P. Winsor, "Museums," in Bowler and Pickstone, Modern Biological and Earth Sciences (cit. n. 62), 60-75.
123. On dioramas at the American Museum of Natural History, see Donna Haraway, "Teddy Bear Patriarchy: Taxidermy in the Garden of Eden, New York City, 1908-1936," Social Text 11 (1984-1985): 20-64
124. Stephen C. Quinn, Windows on Nature: The Great Habitat Dioramas of the American Museum of Natural History (New York, 2006)
125. Karen Wonders, Habitat Dioramas: Illusions of Wilderness in Museums of Natural History (Uppsala, 1993).
126. On the funding of these expeditions, see Michael Kennedy, "Philanthropy and Science in New York City: The American Museum of Natural History, 1868-1968" (PhD diss., Yale Univ., 1968)
127. on expeditions, Lyle Rexer and Rachel Klein, American Museum of Natural History: 125 Years of Expedition and Discovery (New York, 1995).
128. Ernst Mayr, E. Gorton Linsley, and Robert Leslie Usinger, Methods and Principles of Systematic Zoology, McGraw-Hill Publications in the Zoological Sciences (New York, 1953), chap. 4.
129. Endersby J, Imperial Nature (cit. n. 58), chap. 1.
130. On Mayr's travel, see Jürgen Haffer, Ornithology, Evolution, and Philosophy: The Life and Science of Ernst Mayr, 1904-2005 (New York, 2007), chap. 2
131. on his use of collections, Kristin Johnson, "Ernst Mayr, Karl Jordan, and the History of Systematics," Hist. Sci. 43 (2005): 1-35.
132. See, e.g., Mayr's self-characterization in Mayr, Linsley, and Usinger RL, Methods and Principles (cit. n. 75), chap. 4.
133. On the history of "stamp collecting," see Kristin Johnson, "Natural History as Stamp Collecting: A Brief History," Arch. Natur. Hist. 34 (2007): 244-58.
134. For a good example of the role of collections for systematic work in the twentieth century, see Johnson K, "Ernst Mayr" (cit. n. 77).
135. Findlen P, Possessing Nature (cit. n. 41)
136. Lorraine Daston and Katharine Park, eds., Wonders and the Order of Nature, 1150-1750 (Cambridge, Mass., 1998)
137. Robert John Weston Evans and Alexander Marr, Curiosity and Wonder from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment (Aldershot, 2006).
138. William B. Ashworth, "Emblematic Natural History of the Renaissance," in Jardine, Secord, and Spary, Cultures of Natural History (cit. n. 7), 17-37.
139. Buffon L, Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière, avec la description du cabinet du roy (Paris, 1749).
140. Dorinda Outram, Georges Cuvier: Vocation, Science, and Authority in Post-revolutionary France (Manchester, 1984)
141. Toby A. Appel, The Cuvier-Geoffroy Debate: French Biology in the Decades before Darwin (New York, 1987)
142. M. J. S. Rudwick, Georges Cuvier, Fossil Bones, and Geological Catastrophes: New Translations and Interpretations of the Primary Texts (Chicago, 1997).
143. Rheinberger H.-J., Toward a History of Epistemic Things: Synthesizing Proteins in the Test Tube (Stanford, Calif., 1997)
144. Ian Hacking, "The Self-Vindication of the Laboratory Sciences," in Science as Practice and Culture, ed. Andrew Pickering (Chicago, 1992), 29-64.
145. Pomian K, Collectors and Curiosities (cit. n. 60).
146. Nicolaas A. Rupke, Richard Owen: Biology without Darwin (Chicago, 2009).
147. Buffon L, Histoire naturelle (cit. n. 83), 4; translation mine.
148. For a broader discussion of this distinction, see Strasser BJ. and de Chadarevian S, "Comparative and the Exemplary" (cit. n. 21).
149. Frederic Lawrence Holmes, Claude Bernard and Animal Chemistry: The Emergence of a Scientist (Cambridge, 1974)
150. Robert E. Kohler, Lords of the Fly: Drosophila Genetics and the Experimental Life (Chicago, 1994).
151. Monod J. and Jacob F., "General Conclusions: Teleonomic Mechanisms in Cellular Metabolism, Growth, and Differentiation," Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology 21 (1961): 389-401.
152. Latour B, "Give Me a Laboratory and I Will Raise the World," in The Science Studies Reader, ed. Mario Biagioli (New York, 1999), 258-75.
153. Buffon L, Histoire naturelle (cit. n. 83).
154. Allen DE, "Morphology and Twentieth-Century Biology" (cit. n. 13)
155. Dietrich MR, "Paradox and Persuasion"
156. Hagen JB, "Naturalists" (Both cit. n. 16).
157. Keith Vernon, "Desperately Seeking Status: Evolutionary Systematics and the Taxonomists' Search for Respectability, 1940-60," Brit. J. Hist. Sci. 26 (1993): 207-27
158. Joel B. Hagen, "Experimental Taxonomy, 1920-1950: The Impact of Cytology, Ecology, and Genetics on the Ideas of Biological Classification" (PhD diss., Oregon State Univ., 1984)
159. Hagen JB, "Experimentalists and Naturalists in 20th-Century Botany-Experimental Taxonomy, 1920-1950," J. Hist. Biol. 17 (1984): 249-70
160. Bruno J. Strasser, "Laboratories, Museums, and the Comparative Perspective: Alan A. Boyden's Serological Taxonomy, 1925-1962," Hist. Stud. Nat. Sci. 40 (2010): 149-82.
161. For an examination of this claim for the history of molecular biology, see Strasser BJ. and de Chadarevian S, "Comparative and the Exemplary" (cit. n. 21).
162. Soraya de Chadarevian, "Following Molecules: Haemoglobin between the Clinic and the Laboratory," in Molecularizing Biology and Medicine: New Practices and Alliances, 1910s-1970s, ed. de Chadarevian and Harmke Kamminga (Amsterdam, 1998), 171-201.
163. Nyhart LK, "Natural History and the 'New' Biology," in Jardine, Secord, and Spary, Cultures of Natural History (cit. n. 7), 426-43, on 422
164. Benson KR, "From Museum Research to Laboratory Research: The Transformation of Natural History into Academic Biology," in Rainger, Benson, and Maienschein, American Development of Biology (cit. n. 67), 49-83, on 77.
165. See esp.
166. Bruno J. Strasser, "Collecting, Comparing, and Computing Sequences: The Making of Margaret O. Dayhoff's Atlas of Protein Sequences and Structure, 1954-1965," J. Hist. Biol. 43 (2010): 623-60
167. Strasser BJ, "The Experimenter's Museum: GenBank, Natural History, and the Moral Economies of Biomedicine," Isis 102 (2011): 60-96.
168. For an example of the same dynamic in early modern collections, see Isabelle Charmantier and Staffan Müller-Wille, "Natural History and Information Overload: The Case of Linnaeus," Stud. Hist. Phil. Biol. Biomed. Sci. 43 (2012): 4-15.
169. Strasser BJ, "Collecting, Comparing, and Computing" (cit. n. 100).
170. Dayhoff to Carl Berkley, 27 February 1967, National Biomedical Research Foundation Archives, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. (hereafter, NBRF Archives).
171. "Proteins: Yet More Sequences," Nature 224 (1969): 313.
172. Philip H. Abelson, "Amino Acid Sequence in Proteins," Science 160 (1968): 951.
173. Helen M. Berman, "The Protein Data Bank: A Historical Perspective," Acta Crystallographica A 64 (2008): 88-95.
174. Strasser BJ, "Experimenter's Museum" (cit. n. 100).
175. Thomas R. Gingeras and Richard J. Roberts, "Steps toward Computer Analysis of Nucleotide Sequences," Science 209 (1980): 1322-8.
176. Margaret O. Dayhoff to Donald DeVincenzi, 10 June 1980, NBRF Archives.
177. Dennis Benson (National Center for Biotechnology Information), personal communication to the author, 3 October 2011.
178. Allen B. Edmundson to Robert S. Ledley, 25 November 1969, and Oliver Smithies to Winona Barker, 5 October 1970, NBRF Archives.
179. See, e.g., Jim Endersby, A Guinea Pig's History of Biology (Cambridge, 2007).
180. David Keilin, "Preparation of Pure Cytochrome c from Heart Muscle and Some of Its Properties," Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B-Biological Sciences 122 (1937): 298-308.
181. "Science Exhibition," Science 106 (1947): 567-75.
182. Georgina Ferry, Max Perutz and the Secret of Life (New York, 2007).
183. Lily E. Kay, The Molecular Vision of Life: Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation and the Rise of the New Biology (New York, 1993).
184. Ingram L, "Sickle-Cell Anemia Hemoglobin: The Molecular Biology of the First 'Molecular Disease'-the Crucial Importance of Serendipity," Genetics 167 (2004): 1-7.
185. De Chadarevian S, "Following Molecules" (cit. n. 98).
186. Margaret O. Dayhoff, Atlas of Protein Sequence and Structure (Silver Spring, Md., 1972).
187. John F. Henahan, "Dr. Doolittle-Making Big Changes in Small Steps," Chemical and Engineering News, February 9, 1970, 22-32, on 23.
188. Margareta Blombäck, personal communication to the author, 19 May 2010
189. Blombäck M, "Thrombosis and Haemostasis Research: Stimulating, Hard Work and Fun," Thrombosis and Haemostasis 98 (2007): 8-15.
190. Henahan JF, "Dr. Doolittle" (cit. n. 120), 23.
191. M. Blombäck to her parents, 19 September 1963, Margareta Blombäck personal archives.
192. Buettner-Janusch J. and R. L. Hill, "Molecules and Monkeys," Science 147 (1965): 836-42.
193. Doolittle RF, "Characterization of Lamprey Fibrinopeptides," Biochemical Journal 94 (1965): 742-50
194. R. Acher, J. Chauvet, and M. T. Chauvet, "Phylogeny of the Neurohypophysial Hormones," Nature 216 (1967): 1037-8.
195. In another field, see Michael D. Gordin, "Beilstein Unbound: The Pedagogical Unraveling of a Man and His Handbuch," in Pedagogy and the Practice of Science: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, ed. David Kaiser (Cambridge, Mass., 2005), 11-39.
196. E.g., Richard Synge to "Compilers," 7 April 1966, NBRF Archives.
197. Bruno J. Strasser, "Collecting and Experimenting: The Moral Economies of Biological Research, 1960s-1980s," Preprints of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science 310 (2006): 105-23
198. Strasser BJ, "Collecting, Comparing, and Computing" and "Experimenter's Museum" (Both cit. n. 100).
199. John T. Edsall to Dayhoff O, 4 November 1969, NBRF Archives.
200. Dayhoff to D. M. Moore, 24 September 1981, NBRF Archives.
201. Dayhoff O, "Computer Analysis of Protein Sequences," Federation Proceedings 33 (1974): 2314-6.
202. Strasser BJ, "Collecting and Experimenting" (cit. n. 128)
203. see also Strasser BJ, "Experimenter's Museum" (cit. n. 100).
204. Marcia Barinaga, "The Missing Crystallography Data," Science 245 (1989): 1179-81.
205. Richard E. Dickerson to president of the American Crystallographic Association, July 1987, Protein Data Bank Archives, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N.J.
206. J. L. Sussman, "Protein Data Bank Deposits," Science 282 (1998): 1993.
207. The Woods Hole group had determined the sequence of a bacterium and made the data available online, only to see another group publish an evolutionary interpretation of these data before they were able to propose one themselves. E. Marshall, "Data Sharing-DNA Sequencer Protests Being Scooped with His Own Data," Science 295 (2002): 1206-7 on 1206.
208. Peter F. Stevens, The Development of Biological Systematics: Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu, Nature, and the Natural System (New York, 1994).
209. S. F. Altschul et al., "Basic Local Alignment Search Tool," Journal of Molecular Biology 215 (1990): 403-10.
210. E.g., Database: The Journal of Biological Databases and Curation was launched in 2009, two years after the International Journal of Digital Curation.
211. Kyle Burkhardt, Bohdan Schneider, and Jeramia Ory, "A Biocurator Perspective: Annotation at the Research Collaboratory for Structural Bioinformatics Protein Data Bank," PLoS Computational Biology 2 (2006): 1186-9 on 1186.
212. Ond'Azyr, see Stéphane Schmitt, "From Physiology to Classification: Comparative Anatomy and Vicq D'Azyr's Plan of Reform for Life Sciences and Medicine (1774-1794)," Sci. Context 22 (2009): 145-93.
213. Anfinsen, The Molecular Basis of Evolution (New York, 1959), 143.
214. Joseph Felsenstein, Inferring Phylogenies (Sunderland, Mass., 2004), chap. 10.
215. S. Bahar, "Ribbon Diagrams and Protein Taxonomy: A Profile of Jane S. Richardson," Biological Physicist 4, no. 3 (2004): 5-8.
216. Richardson JS, "Beta-Sheet Topology and the Relatedness of Proteins," Nature 268 (1977): 495-500.
217. Richardson JS, "The Anatomy and Taxonomy of Protein Structure," Advances in Protein Chemistry 34 (1981): 167-339.
218. Ibid., 170.
219. Cited in Bahar S, "Ribbon Diagrams" (cit. n. 144), 5.
220. Ibid., 6; emphasis in the original.
221. Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven, Conn., 1985).
222. Strasser BJ, "Laboratories, Museums" (cit. n. 95).
223. Mayr, Linsley, and Usinger RL, Methods and Principles (cit. n. 75), 106-7.
224. George Gaylord Simpson, Principles of Animal Taxonomy (New York, 1961).
225. On this debate, see Strasser BJ, "Laboratories, Museums" (cit. n. 95).
226. M. Levitt and J. Greer, "Automatic Identification of Secondary Structure in Globular Proteins, Journal of Molecular Biology 114 (1977): 181-239.
227. C. P. Ponting and R. R. Russell, "The Natural History of Protein Domains," Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure 31 (2002): 45-71.
228. Kwa C, Styles of Knowing (cit. n. 24), 167.
229. On the epistemology of type specimens, see Lorraine Daston, "Type Specimens and Scientific Memory," Crit. Inq. 31 (2004): 153-82.
230. Michel Morange, A History of Molecular Biology (Cambridge, 2000), chap. 17.
231. On the beginnings of this approach, see Russell F. Doolittle, "Some Reflections on the Early Days of Sequence Searching," Journal of Molecular Medicine 75 (1997): 239-41.
232. M. Y. Galperin and G. R. Cochrane, "The 2011 Nucleic Acids Research Database Issue and the Online Molecular Biology Database Collection," Nucleic Acids Research 39, supplement (2011): D1-D6.
233. I thank Robert Kohler for suggesting this useful analogy.
234. Nick Hopwood and Friedrich Ziegler, Embryos in Wax: Models from the Ziegler Studio (Cambridge, 2002).
235. See Latour's wonderful essay on the ontological range of scientific objects in Latour B, Pandora's Hope-Essays on the Reality of Science Studies (Cambridge, 1999), chap. 2.
236. Strasser BJ, "Laboratories, Museums" (cit. n. 95).
237. See, e.g., field naturalists' attitudes toward the experimental taxonomist Alan Boyden, described ibid.
238. Bruno J. Strasser, "Data-Driven Sciences: From Wonder Cabinets to Electronic Databases," Stud. Hist. Phil. Biol. Biomed. Sci. 43 (2012): 85-7.
239. McNeely IF. and Wolverton L, Reinventing Knowledge (cit. n. 28), 251, 271
240. Butterfield, The Origins of Modern Science, 1300-1800 (London, 1949).
241. McNeely IF. and Wolverton L, Reinventing Knowledge (cit. n. 28), 256.
242. On the norms about the borrowing of specimens, see Mayr, Linsley, and Usinger RL, Methods and Principles (cit. n. 75).
243. R. J. Roberts et al., "Building a 'Genbank' of the Published Literature," Science 291 (2001): 2318-9.
244. S. Cooper et al., "Predicting Protein Structures with a Multiplayer Online Game," Nature 466 (2010): 756-60.
245. Darnton R, "An Early Information Society: News and the Media in Eighteenth-Century Paris," Amer. Hist. Rev. 105 (2000): 1-35.
246. Simpson GG, Principles of Animal Taxonomy (cit. n. 153), 10.