Laboratories, museums, and the comparative perspective: Alan A. Boyden's quest for objectivity in serological taxonomy, 1924-1962

Historical Studies in the Natural Sciences

Volumn 40, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 149-182

  Strasser, Bruno J ^a  

^a YALE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Alan A. Boyden; Edward T. Reichert; Experimentation; Genomics; George H. F. Nuttall; Model organism; Natural history; Serology; Systematics

Indexed keywords

ARTIFACT; BIOMEDICINE; CLASSIFICATION; EDUCATION; ETHNOLOGY; GENOMICS; HISTORY; INFORMATION CENTER; LABORATORY PERSONNEL; PERSONNEL; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; REVIEW; SEROLOGY; TECHNIQUE; UNITED STATES;

ARTIFACTS; BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE DISCIPLINES; CLASSIFICATION; GENOMICS; HISTORIOGRAPHY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; LABORATORY PERSONNEL; METHODS; MUSEUMS; NATURAL HISTORY; RESEARCH PERSONNEL; SEROLOGY; UNITED STATES;

EID: 77952484038     PISSN: 19391811     EISSN: 1939182X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1525/hsns.2010.40.2.149     Document Type: Review

References (180)

1. This narrative is the main theme of the classic works by William R. Coleman and Garland E. Allen. William R. Coleman, Biology in the Nineteenth Century: Problems of Form, Function and Transformation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971)
2. Garland E. Allen, Life Science in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978)
3. These works still largely influence contemporary historiography; see for example Peter J. Bowler and Iwan Rhys Morus, Making Modern Science: A Historical Survey (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005)
4. See Lynn K. Nyhart, "Natural History and the 'New' Biology," in Cultures of Natural History, ed. Nicholas Jardine, James A. Secord, and Emma C. Spary (London: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 426-43, on 422
5. and Keith R. Benson, "From Museum Research to Laboratory Research: The Transformation of Natural History into Academic Biology," in The American Development of Biology, ed. Ronald Rainger, Keith R. Benson, and Jane Maienschein (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988), 77
6. Robert E. Kohler and Joel B. Hagen have most directly challenged this dichotomy; see Robert E. Kohler, Landscapes and Labscapes: Exploring the Lab-Field Border in Biology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002)
7. Joel B. Hagen, "Experimentalists and Naturalists in 20th-Century Botany - Experimental Taxonomy, 1920-1950," JHB 17, no. 2 (1984): 249-70
8. and Joel B. Hagen, "Naturalists, Molecular Biology, and the Challenge of Molecular Evolution," JHB 32 (1999): 321-41
9. John V. Pickstone, Ways of Knowing: A New History of Science, Technology and Medicine (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000)
10. John V. Pickstone, "Working Knowledges Before and After Circa 1800: Practices and Disciplines in the History of Science, Technology and Medicine," Isis 98 (2007): 489-516
11. For the tensions within the experimental sciences, see Bruno J. Strasser, "Collecting and Experimenting: The Moral Economies of Biological Research, 1960s-1980s," Preprints of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science 310 (2006): 105-23
12. Bruno J. Strasser, "GenBank: Natural History in the 21st Century?," Science 322 (2008): 537-38
13. Bruno J. Strasser, "Collecting, Comparing and Computing Sequences: The Making of Margaret O. Dayhoff's Atlas of Protein Sequences and Structure, 1954-1965," JHB (2010, in press)
14. Bruno J. Strasser," Inventing GenBank: Natural History, Experimentation, and the Moral Economies of Biomedicine, 1979-1982" Isis (in press)
15. For a broad overview, see Paul Lawrence Farber, Finding Order in Nature: The Naturalist Tradition from Linnaeus to E. O. Wilson (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000)
16. On the importance of collections in the natural history perspective, see for example Brian W. Ogilvie, The Science of Describing: Natural History in Renaissance Europe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006)
17. Paula Findlen, Possessing Nature: Museums, Collecting, and Scientific Culture in Early Modern Italy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994)
18. Nicholas Jardine, James A. Secord, and Emma C. Spary, eds., Cultures of Natural History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996)
19. Emma C. Spary, Utopia's Garden: French Natural History from Old Regime to Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000)
20. Jim Endersby, Imperial Nature: Joseph Hooker and the Practices of Victorian Science (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008)
21. See for example, on mice, Karen A. Rader, Making Mice: Standardizing Animals for American Biomedical Research, 1900-1955 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004)
22. on TMV, Angela N. H. Creager, The Life of a Virus: Tobacco Mosaic Virus as an Experimental Model, 1930-1965 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002)
23. on Drosophila, Robert E. Kohler, Lords of the Fly: Drosophila Genetics and the Experimental Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994)
24. on C. elegans, Soraya de Chadarevian, "Of Worms and Programmes: Caenorhabditis Elegans and the Study of Development," SHPBBS 29, no. 1 (1998): 81-105
25. on Arabidopsis, Sabina Leonelli, "Growing Weed, Producing Knowledge: An Epistemic History of Arabidopsis Thaliana," History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences 29, no. 2 (2007): 193-223
26. and more generally Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura, eds., The Right Tool for the Job: At Work in Twentieth-Century Life Sciences (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992)
27. and Angela N. H. Creager, Elizabeth Lunbeck, and M. Norton Wise, eds., Science without Laws: Model Systems, Cases, Exemplary Narratives, Science and Cultural Theory (Durham: Duke University Press, 2007), part I
28. On objectivity, Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, Objectivity (New York: Zone Books, 2007)
29. on precision, M. Norton Wise, ed., The Values of Precision (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995)
30. on quantification, Theodore M. Porter, Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995)
31. Jacques Monod and François Jacob, "General Conclusions: Teleonomic Mechanisms in Cellular Metabolism, Growth, and Differentiation," Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology 21 (1961): 389-401, on 363
32. On the origins of this expression, see Herbert C. Friedmann, "From 'Butyribacterium' to 'E. coli' - an Essay on Unity in Biochemistry," Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 47, no. 1 (2004): 47-66. In the earlier part of the twentieth century, knowledge derived from animal model organisms was believed to hold true only for animals, not plants and microbes, as would become the case in molecular biology starting in the late 1950s
33. Strasser, "Collecting and Experimenting" (ref. 4)
34. Strasser, "GenBank" (ref. 4)
35. Strasser, "Collecting, Comparing, and Computing" (ref. 4)
36. Strasser, "Inventing GenBank" (ref. 4)
37. Emile Zuckerkandl and Linus Pauling, "Molecules as Documents of Evolutionary History," Journal of Theoretical Biology 8 (1965): 357-66
38. Kohler, Landscapes and Labscapes (ref. 2)
39. Hagen, ""Naturalists, Molecular Biology" (ref. 2)
40. Hagen, "Experimentalists and Naturalists" (ref. 2)
41. Alan A. Boyden's postwar career has been briefly mentioned, but mainly as a critique of the work of Morris Goodman, in Edna Suárez-Díaz, "The Rhetoric of Informational Molecules: Authority and Promises in the Early Study of Molecular Evolution," Science in Context 20, no. 4 (2007): 649-77
42. Joel B. Hagen, "From Immunodiffusion Experiments to Sequence Analysis: Morris Goodman and the Origins of Molecular Anthropology," JHB (2010, in press)
43. On the contribution of Mabel Boyden, Alan A. Boyden's wife, see Priska Gisler, "Collecting True Blue Blood: A Journey to the Heart of 1960s Biology," Endeavour 33, no. 3 (2009): 112-16
44. George S. Graham-Smith, "George Henry Falkiner Nuttall (5 Jul 1862-16 Dec 1937)," Journal of Hygiene 38, no. 2 (1938): 129-40
45. George S. Graham-Smith and David Keilin, "George Henry Falkiner Nuttall, 1862-1937," Obituary Notice of Fellows of the Royal Society 2, no. 7 (1939): 493-99
46. For his later work in parasitology, see Francis E. G. Cox, "George Henry Falkiner Nuttall and the Origins of Parasitology and Parasitology," Parasitology 136, no. 2 (2009): 1389-94
47. Karl Landsteiner has just published his paper on the inheritance of human blood groups in 1901. Louis K. Diamond, "The Story of Our Blood Groups," in Blood, Pure and Eloquent, ed. Maxwell M. Wintrobe (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1980), 691-717
48. George H. F. Nuttall and Edgar M. Dinkelspiel, "Experiments upon the New Specific Test for Blood (Preliminary Note)," British Medical Journal 1 (1901): 1141
49. George H. F. Nuttall, "On the Formation of Specific Anti-Bodies in the Blood, Following Upon Treatment with the Sera of Different Animals," American Naturalist 35 (1901): 927-32
50. George H. F. Nuttall and Edgar M. Dinkelspiel, "On the Formation of Specific Anti-Bodies in the Blood Following Upon Treatment with the Sera of Different Animals Together with Their Use in Legal Medicine," Journal of Hygiene 1, no. 3 (1901): 367-87
51. George H. F. Nuttall, "A Further Note on the Biological Test for Blood and Its Importance in Zoological Classification," British Medical Journal 2 (1901): 669
52. George H. F. Nuttall, "The New Biological Test for Blood in Relation to Zoological Classification," Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences 69, no. 453 (1901): 150-53
53. George H. F. Nuttall, "Progress Report Upon the Biological Test for Blood as Applied to over 500 Bloods from Various Sources, Together with a Preliminary Note Upon a Method for Measuring the Degree of Reaction," British Medical Journal 1 (1902): 825-27
54. Nuttall, "Progress Report" (ref. 17), 827
55. George Henry Falkiner Nuttall, Blood Immunity and Blood Relationship: A Demonstration of Certain Blood-Relationships Amongst Animals by Means of the Precipitin Test for Blood (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1904), 1
56. George Henry Falkiner Nuttall, Blood Immunity and Blood Relationship: A Demonstration of Certain Blood-Relationships Amongst Animals by Means of the Precipitin Test for Blood (Ibid., 411-13
57. For an overview of these critiques, see Alan A. Boyden, "Systematic Serology: A Critical Appreciation," PZ 15, no. 2 (1942): 109-45. The lack of standardization of the antisera, and the difficulty of visually determining if a precipitation had actually occurred, were some of the reasons for the inconsistent results
58. Anonymous, "Reichert, Edward Tyson," in Marquis Who Was Who in America 1607-1984, see www.credoreference.com/ (last accessed 1 Mar 2009)
59. Edward Tyson Reichert and Amos P. Brown, The Differentiation and Specificity of Corresponding Proteins and Other Vital Substances in Relation to Biological Classification and Organic Evolution: The Crystallography of Hemoglobins (Washington, DC: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1909), iv
60. Edward Tyson Reichert, The Differentiation and Specificity of Starches in Relation to Genera, Species, etc; Stereochemistry Applied to Protoplasmic Processes and Products, and as a Strictly Scientific Basis for the Classification of Plants and Animals (Washington, DC: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1913)
61. Edward Tyson Reichert, A Biochemic Basis for the Study of Problems of Taxonomy, Heredity, Evolution, Etc., with Especial Reference to the Starches and Tissues of Parent-Stocks and Hybrid-Stocks and the Starches and Hemoglobins of Varieties, Species, and Genera (Washington, DC: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1919)
62. Reichert and Brown, Differentiation and Specificity (ref. 25), xvi-xvii
63. For Boyden's biographical data, see James G. Crowther, Famous American Men of Science (New York: Penguin Books, 1944), 189 and his personal file, Alan Arthur Boyden, "Faculty Data," 1 Jan 1942, "Faculty Biographical File," 1 Sep 1946 and "Faculty Biographical File," 20 Aug 1957, Rutgers Archives
64. Alan A. Boyden, "The Precipitin Reaction in the Study of Animal Relationships," Biological Bulletin 50, no. 2 (1926): 73-107, on 75
65. Michael F. Guyer, "Blood Reactions of Man and Animals," Scientific Monthly 21, no. 10 (1925): 145-46
66. Karl Landsteiner, "Cell Antigens and Individual Specificity," Journal of Immunology 15, no. 6 (1928): 589-600, on 596
67. Boyden, "The Precipitin Reaction" (ref. 30)
68. Alan Boyden and Joseph G. Baier Jr, "A Rapid Quantitative Precipitin Technic," Journal of Immunology 17, no. 1 (1929): 29-37
69. Alan Boyden, "Precipitin Tests as a Basis for a Quantitative Phylogeny," Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 29, no. 8 (1932): 955-57
70. Alan A. Boyden, "Precipitins and Phylogeny in Animals," American Naturalist 68 (1934): 516-36
71. For a description of the technique, see Alan A. Boyden and Ralph J. DeFalco, "Report on the Use of the Photronreflectometer in Serological Comparisons," PZ 16, no. 3 (1943):229-41
72. Basically, Boyden took the integral of the titration curve. See Boyden, "Systematic Serology" (ref. 23)
73. and Alan Boyden, "Serology and Animal Systematics," American Naturalist 77 (1943): 234-55
74. Boyden, "Precipitin Reaction" (ref. 30), 103
75. Boyden, "Precipitins and Phylogeny" (ref. 33), 518
76. Boyden, "Precipitin Tests" (ref. 33), 957
77. Boyden, "Serology and Animal Systematics" (ref. 35), 253
78. Alan A. Boyden, SMB 2 (1949), 12
79. Joel B. Hagen, "The Statistical Frame of Mind in Systematic Biology from Quantitative Zoology to Biometry," JHB 36, no. 2 (2003): 353-84
80. George Gaylord Simpson and Anne Roe, Quantitative Zoology: Numerical Concepts and Methods in the Study of Recent and Fossil Animals (New York, London: McGraw-Hill, 1939)
81. on quantification in paleontology, see Léo F. Laporte, George Gaylord Simpson: Paleontologist and Evolutionist (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), chap. 3
82. Hagen, "Statistical Frame" (ref. 47), 358
83. Ernst Mayr, E. Gorton Linsley, and Robert L. Usinger, eds., Methods and Principles of Systematic Zoology (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1953), 106-07
84. William Bertram Turrill, "The Subjective Element in Plant Taxonomy," Bulletin du Jardin Botanique de ĺtat à Bruxelles 27, no. 1 (1957): 1-8, on 8
85. Mayr, Methods and Principles (ref. 52), 113
86. Keith Vernon, "Desperately Seeking Status - Evolutionary Systematics and the Taxonomists Search for Respectability 1940-60," British Journal for the History of Science 26, no. 89 (1993): 207-227, on 209
87. Even though they shared a common goal, there were sharp intellectual divisions among systematists, especially between traditional taxonomists and "new systematists." See David L. Hull, Science as a Process (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988)
88. and Joe Cain, "Launching the Society of Systematic Zoology in 1947," in Milestones in Systematics, ed. David M. Williams and Peter L. Forey (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2004), 19-48. The later development of numerical taxonomy is not considered here, but can be seen to be in continuity with this movement
89. See Keith Vernon, "The Founding of Numerical Taxonomy," British Journal for the History of Science 21, no. 69 (1988): 143-59
90. Joel B. Hagen, "The Introduction of Computers into Systematic Research in the United States During the 1960s," SHPBBS 32, no. 2 (2001): 291-314
91. In the United States, until 1945, most of the systematic serologists working on animal taxonomy were colleagues of Boyden at Rutgers, most importantly Charles A. Leone, but also Ralph J. DeFalco and Douglas G. Gemeroy. For some exceptions, see the work of Raymond W. Wilhelmi at Woods Hole, who insisted like Boyden on the objectivity of the serological data. Raymond W. Wilhelmi, "Serological Relationships between the Mollusca and Other Invertebrates," Biological Bulletin 87, no. 1 (1944): 96-105. See also the work of Russell W. Cumley at the University of Texas
92. Russell W. Cumley, "Comparison of Serologic and Taxonomic Relationships of Drosophila Species," Journal of the New York Entomological Society 48, no. 3 (1940): 265-74. In the 1930s, serology seemed to have been more popular, especially in Germany
93. On the German context, in the field of plant taxonomy, see for example Carl Mez, "Die Bedeutung der Sero-Diagnostik für die stammesgeschichtliche Forschung," Botanisches Archiv 16 (1926): 1-23
94. and for a general review of serological taxonomy and phylogeny, see Albert Erhardt, "Die Verwandtschaftsbestimmungen Mittels der Immunitätsreaktionen in der Zoologie und ihr Wert für phylogenetische Untersuchungen," Ergebnisse und Fortschritte der Zoologie 7 (1931): 279-377
95. In the United States, see K. Starr Chester, "A Critique of Plant Serology, Part I: The Nature and Utilization of Phytoserological Procedures," Quarterly Review of Biology 12, no. 1 (1937): 19-64
96. K. Starr Chester, "A Critique of Plant Serology (Continued), Part II: Application of Serology to the Classification of Plants and the Identification of Plant Products," Quarterly Review of Biology 12, no. 2 (1937): 165-90
97. K. Starr Chester, "A Critique of Plant Serology (Concluded); Part III: Phytoserology in Medicine and General Biology Bibliography," Quarterly Review of Biology 12, no. 3 (1937): 294-321
98. Boyden's work is not mentioned in Julian Huxley, ed., The New Systematics (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1940)
99. nor in Ernst Mayr, Systematics and the Origin of Species from the Viewpoint of a Zoologist (New York: Columbia University Press, 1942)
100. or George Gaylord Simpson, "The Principles of Classification and a Classification of Mammals," Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 85 (1945): 1-307
101. and in George Gaylord Simpson, Principles of Animal Taxonomy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961)
102. and, on the other side of the systematist's community, in Richard E. Blackwelder, Taxonomy: A Text and Reference Book (New York: Wiley, 1967)
103. On the debates between Blackwelder and Simpson, see Cain, "Launching the Society" (ref. 60)
104. George Gaylord Simpson, Animal Taxonomy (ref. 62), 73
105. Anonymous, "Serological Museum of Rutgers University," Nature 161, no. 4090 (1948): 428
106. Anonymous, "New and Unique Kind of Museum," Science 107, no. 2774 (1948): 217
107. For late nineteenth-century examples of continuities between laboratories and museums in Britain, see Alison Kraft and Samuel J. M. M. Alberti, "'Equal Though Different': Laboratories, Museums and the Institutional Development of Biology in Late-Victorian Northern England," SHPBBS 34, no. 2 (2003): 203-36
108. Sophie Forgan, "The Architecture of Display - Museums, Universities and Objects in 19th-Century Britain," History of Science 32, no. 96 (1994): 139-62
109. On this episode, see Gregg Mitman and Richard W. Burkhardt Jr, "Struggling for Identity: The Study of Animal Behavior in America, 1930-1950," in The American Expansion of Biology, ed. Keith R. Benson, Ronald Rainger, and Jane Maienschein (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1987)
110. Joseph Allen Cain, "Common Problems and Cooperative Solutions - Organizational Activity in Evolutionary Studies, 1936-1947," Isis 84, no. 1 (1993): 1-25, on 20
111. American Museum of Natural History, Sixtieth Annual Report of American Museum of Natural History (New York: The Museum, 1929), 13
112. Noble and Boyden later collaborated on a serological study of amphibians, Noble's specialty. Alan Boyden and G. Kingsley Noble, "The Relationships of Some Common Amphibia as Determined by Serological Study," American Museum Novitates 606 (1933): 1-24
113. Anonymous, "New and Unique" (ref. 64)
114. Anonymous, "Blood Proteins to be Kept in New, Special Museum," Science News Letter (12 Jun 1948): 377
115. Alan A. Boyden, "Introductory Remarks," in Serological and Biochemical Comparisons of Proteins, ed. William H. Cole (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1958), 1
116. George H. Holsten (Rutgers News Service), Press Release, 6-7 Apr 1951, Rutgers Archives, RG 04/A16, Box 101; and Anon, "Rutgers Unit Gets $5000," NYT, 7 Apr 1951
117. Alan A. Boyden, SMB 1 (1948), 1
118. Alan A. Boyden, SMB 5 (1950), 1
119. Anonymous, "Plan to Lecture, 'Fish' Abroad," Sunday Home News, 4 Sep 1960
120. Anonymous, "Triple Play," Jan 1950, RA, Newspaper Clippings, Folder Faculty Bio
121. Boyden, "Introductory Remarks" (ref. 71), 1
122. Findlen, Possessing Nature (ref. 5), 48
123. See for example Endersby, Imperial Nature (ref. 5)
124. and Richard W. Burkhardt Jr, "Naturalists' Practices and Nature's Empire: Paris and the Platypus, 1815-1833," Pacific Science 55 (2001): 327-41
125. Alan Boyden, "Fifty Years of Systematic Serology," Systematic Zoology 2, no. 1 (1953): 19-30, on 30
126. Alan Boyden, "Zoological Collecting Expeditions and the Salvage of Animal Bloods for Comparative Serology," Science 118, no. 3054 (1953): 57-58, on 57
127. Bernard Weitz, "The Collection of Serum from Game in East Africa," SMB 4 (1950), 1-3
128. Anonymous, "Recent Advances in the Collection of Serum from Marine Animals," SMB 5, (1950), 3-4 on 3
129. Boyden, "Zoological Collecting" (ref. 84), 58
130. Alan A. Boyden, "The 'Flying Lemur' Comes to the Museum," SMB 4 (1950): 4-5, on 4
131. Elias Cohen and Gunnar B. Stickler, "Absence of Albuminlike Serum Proteins in Turtles," Science 127 (1958): 1392
132. Alan A. Boyden, "Our Contacts Grow," SMB 3 (1949): 1
133. William Kingston, "Streptomycin, Schatz v. Waksman, and the Balance of Credit for Discovery," Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 59, no. 3 (2004): 441-62
134. On the fly group, see Kohler, Lords of the Fly (ref. 6)
135. on the phage group and more generally on the cooperative individualism fostered by the Rockefeller Foundation at Caltech, see Lily E. Kay, The Molecular Vision of Life: Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation and the Rise of the New Biology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993)
136. Alan A. Boyden to Robert C. Clothier, 21 Jul 1943, and Alan A. Boyden, "A Plan for the Training of American Youth in Responsible Citizenship," attached to Alan A. Boyden to Robert C. Clothier, 2 Oct 1943, Rutgers Archives, RG 04/A14, Box 85
137. Boyden, "'Flying Lemur'" (ref. 94)
138. Anonymous, "Woman Scientist Brings Rare Blood," NYT, 6 May 1950
139. See for example Benjamin Adelman, "Blood Museum Traces Animal Cousins," Science Digest 30 (1951): 6-8
140. Anonymous, "Jungle Quest Planned," NYT, 22 Jul 1957
141. Anonymous, "Museum at Rutgers Hunts for Serum," NYT, 16 Feb 1958
142. Anonymous, "Bloody Business," Hartford Courant, 12 Apr 1958
143. Charles E. Rosenberg, No Other Gods: On Science and American Social Thought (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), chap. 7
144. Anonymous, "Blood Study Aids Fight on Disease," NYT, 27 Jul 1952
145. Anonymous, "Tell Blood Differences," Science News Letter, 20 Jun 1953: 386
146. Alan Boyden, "Nuttall Memorial Celebration," Science 114, no. 2954 (1951): 162
147. Anonymous, "This Museum Banks on Blood," Home News, 2 Mar 1971
148. Serological systematics did not completely disappear and continued to play an important role in some fields, especially in primate evolution. See Hagen, "From Immunodiffusion" (ref. 13)
149. Marianne Sommer, "History in the Gene: Negotiations between Molecular and Organismal Anthropology," JHB 41, no. 3 (2008): 473-528
150. Edna Suárez-Díaz and Victor H. Anaya-Muñoz, "History, Objectivity, and the Construction of Molecular Phylogenies," SHPBBS 39, no. 4 (2008): 451-68
151. and Strasser, "Collecting, Comparing and Computing" (ref. 4)
152. In reaction to the perceived invasion of their territory by experimentalists, naturalists called for a peace treaty and the recognition of the "unity" of biology around evolutionary theory; see for example Theodosius Dobzhansky, "Taxonomy, Molecular Biology, and the Peck Order," Evolution 15, no. 2 (1961): 263-64. Experimentalists, on the other hand, understood "unity" as the ultimate outcome of their reductionist agenda, and insisted that every biological process was ultimately to be explained at the molecular level
153. On this debate, see Michael R. Dietrich, "Paradox and Persuasion: Negotiating the Place of Molecular Evolution within Evolutionary Biology," JHB 31 (1998): 85-111
154. For a structurally similar argument concerning clinicians and basic scientists in the late nineteenth century, see John Harley Warner, "Ideals of Science and Their Discontents in Late Nineteenth-Century American Medicine," Isis 82 (1991): 454-78
155. Joel B. Hagen, "Experimental Taxonomy, 1920-1950: The Impact of Cytology, Ecology, and Genetics on the Ideas of Biological Classification" (PhD dissertation, Oregon State University, 1984)
156. Boyden, "Fifty Years" (ref. 81), 20
157. Sommer, "History in the Gene" (ref. 113)
158. Suárez-Díaz and Anaya-Muñoz, "History, Objectivity" (ref. 113)
159. Similarly, the historiography of molecular biology has sometimes obscured the broader trend of molecularization in the twentieth century; see Soraya de Chadarevian and Harmke Kamminga, eds., Molecularizing Biology and Medicine: New Practices and Alliances, 1910s-1970s (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1998)
160. Daston and Galison, Objectivity (ref. 7)
161. Simpson, Principles of Animal Taxonomy (ref. 62), 152
162. Hull, Science as a Process (ref. 60)
163. Joel B. Hagen, "Descended from Darwin? George Gaylord Simpson, Morris Goodman, and Primate Systematics," in Descended from Darwin: Insights into the History of Evolutionary Studies, 1900-1970, ed. Joe Cain and Michael Ruse (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 2009), 106
164. The term "new systematics" came into common use after the publication of Julian Huxley's edited volume, Huxley, ed., New Systematics (ref. 62)
165. On the evolutionary synthesis, see Vassiliki Betty Smocovitis, Unifying Biology: The Evolutionary Synthesis and Evolutionary Biology (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996)
166. On the debate between the new systematists and traditional taxonomists in the 1950s, see Vernon, "Desperately Seeking Status" (ref. 59), especially 224
167. Boyden's position is best stated in Richard E. Blackwelder and Alan Boyden, "The Nature of Systematics: Part I-The Classification of the Zoological Sciences," Systematic Zoology 1, no. 1 (1952): 26-29
168. and see the reply, George S. Myers, "The Nature of Systematic Biology and of a Species Description," Systematic Zoology 1, no. 3 (1952): 106-11, on 110-111
169. Blackwelder and Boyden, "Nature of Systematics" (ref. 130), 32
170. Hagen, "Descended from Darwin?" (ref. 130)
171. On the place of serology in physical anthropology, see Jonathan Marks, "The Legacy of Serological Studies in American Physical Anthropology," History and Philosophy of the Life Science 18 (1996): 345-62
172. For a good overview of systematic serology in the 1960s, see Charles A. Leone, ed., Taxonomic Biochemistry and Serology (New York: Ronald Press Co., 1964)
173. and, with a focus on botany, Ralph E. Alston and B. L. Turner, Biochemical Systematics (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1963), chap. 5
174. On serology's progressive marginalization among biochemical systematics in the 1970s and 1980s, see Christopher Amyas Wright, Biochemical and Immunological Taxonomy of Animals (London and New York: Academic Press, 1974)
175. Andrew Ferguson, Biochemical Systematics and Evolution (New York: Wiley, 1980)
176. On DNA hybridization, see Edna Suárez, "Satellite-DNA: A Case Study for the Evolution of Experimental Techniques," SHPBBS 32, no. 1 (2001): 31-57
177. and more generally on the rise of molecular evolution, see Dietrich, "Paradox and Persuasion" (ref. 115)
178. Jay D. Aronson, "'Molecules and Monkeys': George Gaylord Simpson and the Challenge of Molecular Evolution," History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences 24, no. 3-4 (2002): 441-65
179. Gregory J. Morgan, "Emile Zuckerkandl, Linus Pauling, and the Molecular Evolutionary Clock, 1959-1965," JHB 31 (1998): 155-78
180. Edna Suárez-Díaz, "Molecular Evolution: Concepts and the Origin of Disciplines," SHPBBS 40, no. 1 (2009): 43-53