Naturalists, molecular biologists, and the challenges of molecular evolution

Journal of the History of Biology

Volumn 32, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 321-341

  Hagen, Joel B ^a  

^a RADFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Molecular biology; Molecular evolution; Natural history; Phylogeny; Systematics

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; EVOLUTION; HISTORY; MOLECULAR BIOLOGY; PHYLOGENY;

EVOLUTION; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; MOLECULAR BIOLOGY; NATURAL HISTORY; PHYLOGENY;

EID: 0033375442     PISSN: 00225010     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1004660202226     Document Type: Article

References (124)

1. Edward O. Wilson, Naturalist, Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1994, chap. 12.
2. Ernst Mayr, "Cause and Effect in Biology," Science, 134 (1961), 1501-1506.
3. This competition is discussed in detail by Michael R. Dietrich, "Paradox and Persuasion: Negotiating the Place of Molecular Evolution within Evolutionary Biology," J. Hist. Biol., 31 (1998), 85-111. John Beatty, "The Proximate/Ultimate Distinction in the Multiple Careers of Ernst Mayr," Biol. Phil., 9 (1994), 333-356; and Joseph Allen Cain, "Building a Temporal Biology: Simpson's Program for Paleontology during an American Expansion of Biology." Earth Sci. Hist., 11 (1992), 30-36. See also, Cain, "Common Problems and Cooperative Solutions: Organizational Activity in Evolutionary Studies, 1936-1947," Isis, 84 (1993), 1-25; Cain, "Ernst Mayr as Community Architect: Launching the Society for the Study of Evolution and the Journal Evolution," Biol. Phil., 9 (1994), 387-427; Vassiliki Betty Smocovitis, Unifying Biology: The Evolutionary Synthesis and Evolutionary Biology (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996). The molecular threat to evolutionary biology is also briefly discussed by Pnina G. Abir-Am, "The Politics of Macromolecules: Molecular Biologists, Biochemists, and Rhetoric," Osiris, 7 (1992), 164-191.
4. This competition is discussed in detail by Michael R. Dietrich, "Paradox and Persuasion: Negotiating the Place of Molecular Evolution within Evolutionary Biology," J. Hist. Biol., 31 (1998), 85-111. John Beatty, "The Proximate/Ultimate Distinction in the Multiple Careers of Ernst Mayr," Biol. Phil., 9 (1994), 333-356; and Joseph Allen Cain, "Building a Temporal Biology: Simpson's Program for Paleontology during an American Expansion of Biology." Earth Sci. Hist., 11 (1992), 30-36. See also, Cain, "Common Problems and Cooperative Solutions: Organizational Activity in Evolutionary Studies, 1936-1947," Isis, 84 (1993), 1-25; Cain, "Ernst Mayr as Community Architect: Launching the Society for the Study of Evolution and the Journal Evolution," Biol. Phil., 9 (1994), 387-427; Vassiliki Betty Smocovitis, Unifying Biology: The Evolutionary Synthesis and Evolutionary Biology (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996). The molecular threat to evolutionary biology is also briefly discussed by Pnina G. Abir-Am, "The Politics of Macromolecules: Molecular Biologists, Biochemists, and Rhetoric," Osiris, 7 (1992), 164-191.
5. This competition is discussed in detail by Michael R. Dietrich, "Paradox and Persuasion: Negotiating the Place of Molecular Evolution within Evolutionary Biology," J. Hist. Biol., 31 (1998), 85-111. John Beatty, "The Proximate/Ultimate Distinction in the Multiple Careers of Ernst Mayr," Biol. Phil., 9 (1994), 333-356; and Joseph Allen Cain, "Building a Temporal Biology: Simpson's Program for Paleontology during an American Expansion of Biology." Earth Sci. Hist., 11 (1992), 30-36. See also, Cain, "Common Problems and Cooperative Solutions: Organizational Activity in Evolutionary Studies, 1936-1947," Isis, 84 (1993), 1-25; Cain, "Ernst Mayr as Community Architect: Launching the Society for the Study of Evolution and the Journal Evolution," Biol. Phil., 9 (1994), 387-427; Vassiliki Betty Smocovitis, Unifying Biology: The Evolutionary Synthesis and Evolutionary Biology (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996). The molecular threat to evolutionary biology is also briefly discussed by Pnina G. Abir-Am, "The Politics of Macromolecules: Molecular Biologists, Biochemists, and Rhetoric," Osiris, 7 (1992), 164-191.
6. This competition is discussed in detail by Michael R. Dietrich, "Paradox and Persuasion: Negotiating the Place of Molecular Evolution within Evolutionary Biology," J. Hist. Biol., 31 (1998), 85-111. John Beatty, "The Proximate/Ultimate Distinction in the Multiple Careers of Ernst Mayr," Biol. Phil., 9 (1994), 333-356; and Joseph Allen Cain, "Building a Temporal Biology: Simpson's Program for Paleontology during an American Expansion of Biology." Earth Sci. Hist., 11 (1992), 30-36. See also, Cain, "Common Problems and Cooperative Solutions: Organizational Activity in Evolutionary Studies, 1936-1947," Isis, 84 (1993), 1-25; Cain, "Ernst Mayr as Community Architect: Launching the Society for the Study of Evolution and the Journal Evolution," Biol. Phil., 9 (1994), 387-427; Vassiliki Betty Smocovitis, Unifying Biology: The Evolutionary Synthesis and Evolutionary Biology (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996). The molecular threat to evolutionary biology is also briefly discussed by Pnina G. Abir-Am, "The Politics of Macromolecules: Molecular Biologists, Biochemists, and Rhetoric," Osiris, 7 (1992), 164-191.
7. This competition is discussed in detail by Michael R. Dietrich, "Paradox and Persuasion: Negotiating the Place of Molecular Evolution within Evolutionary Biology," J. Hist. Biol., 31 (1998), 85-111. John Beatty, "The Proximate/Ultimate Distinction in the Multiple Careers of Ernst Mayr," Biol. Phil., 9 (1994), 333-356; and Joseph Allen Cain, "Building a Temporal Biology: Simpson's Program for Paleontology during an American Expansion of Biology." Earth Sci. Hist., 11 (1992), 30-36. See also, Cain, "Common Problems and Cooperative Solutions: Organizational Activity in Evolutionary Studies, 1936-1947," Isis, 84 (1993), 1-25; Cain, "Ernst Mayr as Community Architect: Launching the Society for the Study of Evolution and the Journal Evolution," Biol. Phil., 9 (1994), 387-427; Vassiliki Betty Smocovitis, Unifying Biology: The Evolutionary Synthesis and Evolutionary Biology (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996). The molecular threat to evolutionary biology is also briefly discussed by Pnina G. Abir-Am, "The Politics of Macromolecules: Molecular Biologists, Biochemists, and Rhetoric," Osiris, 7 (1992), 164-191.
8. This competition is discussed in detail by Michael R. Dietrich, "Paradox and Persuasion: Negotiating the Place of Molecular Evolution within Evolutionary Biology," J. Hist. Biol., 31 (1998), 85-111. John Beatty, "The Proximate/Ultimate Distinction in the Multiple Careers of Ernst Mayr," Biol. Phil., 9 (1994), 333-356; and Joseph Allen Cain, "Building a Temporal Biology: Simpson's Program for Paleontology during an American Expansion of Biology." Earth Sci. Hist., 11 (1992), 30-36. See also, Cain, "Common Problems and Cooperative Solutions: Organizational Activity in Evolutionary Studies, 1936-1947," Isis, 84 (1993), 1-25; Cain, "Ernst Mayr as Community Architect: Launching the Society for the Study of Evolution and the Journal Evolution," Biol. Phil., 9 (1994), 387-427; Vassiliki Betty Smocovitis, Unifying Biology: The Evolutionary Synthesis and Evolutionary Biology (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996). The molecular threat to evolutionary biology is also briefly discussed by Pnina G. Abir-Am, "The Politics of Macromolecules: Molecular Biologists, Biochemists, and Rhetoric," Osiris, 7 (1992), 164-191.
9. This competition is discussed in detail by Michael R. Dietrich, "Paradox and Persuasion: Negotiating the Place of Molecular Evolution within Evolutionary Biology," J. Hist. Biol., 31 (1998), 85-111. John Beatty, "The Proximate/Ultimate Distinction in the Multiple Careers of Ernst Mayr," Biol. Phil., 9 (1994), 333-356; and Joseph Allen Cain, "Building a Temporal Biology: Simpson's Program for Paleontology during an American Expansion of Biology." Earth Sci. Hist., 11 (1992), 30-36. See also, Cain, "Common Problems and Cooperative Solutions: Organizational Activity in Evolutionary Studies, 1936-1947," Isis, 84 (1993), 1-25; Cain, "Ernst Mayr as Community Architect: Launching the Society for the Study of Evolution and the Journal Evolution," Biol. Phil., 9 (1994), 387-427; Vassiliki Betty Smocovitis, Unifying Biology: The Evolutionary Synthesis and Evolutionary Biology (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996). The molecular threat to evolutionary biology is also briefly discussed by Pnina G. Abir-Am, "The Politics of Macromolecules: Molecular Biologists, Biochemists, and Rhetoric," Osiris, 7 (1992), 164-191.
10. F. H. C. Crick, "On Protein Synthesis," Symp. Soc. Exp. Biol. [London], 12 (1958), 138-163.
11. Charles A. Leone (ed). Taxonomic Biochemistry and Serology. New York. Ronald Press, 1964; C. A. Wright, "Experimental Taxonomy: A Review of Some Techniques and their Applications," Internat. Rev. Gen. Exp. Zool., 2 (1966), 1-42. Warning against excessive specialization, Wright argued forcefully that modern biology should provide a meeting ground for biochemists and taxonomists.
12. Charles A. Leone (ed). Taxonomic Biochemistry and Serology. New York. Ronald Press, 1964; C. A. Wright, "Experimental Taxonomy: A Review of Some Techniques and their Applications," Internat. Rev. Gen. Exp. Zool., 2 (1966), 1-42. Warning against excessive specialization, Wright argued forcefully that modern biology should provide a meeting ground for biochemists and taxonomists.
13. A. H. Gordon, "Electrophoresis and Chromatography of Amino Acids and Proteins," in The Origins of Modern Biochemistry: A Retrospect on Protans, ed. P. R. Srinivasan, Jospeh S. Fruton, and John T. Edsall (New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1979).
14. The sequence of amino acids in the β chain was published in 1951, the α chain in 1953, and the positions of the disulfide bridges holding the two chains together in 1955; see: Frederick Sanger, "Sequences, Sequences, and Sequences." Ann. Rev. Biochem., 57 (1988), 1-28; Josephs Fruton, Molecules and Life: Historical Essays on the Interplay of Chemistry and Biology (New York: John Wiley, 1972), pp. 170-179 ; Emil L. Smith, "Amino Acid Sequences of Proteins - The Beginnings," in The Origins of Modern Biochemistry: A Retrospect on Proteins, ed. P. R. Srinivasan, Joseph S. Fruton, and John T. Edsal (New York: Nsw York Academy of Sciences, 1979).
15. The sequence of amino acids in the β chain was published in 1951, the α chain in 1953, and the positions of the disulfide bridges holding the two chains together in 1955; see: Frederick Sanger, "Sequences, Sequences, and Sequences." Ann. Rev. Biochem., 57 (1988), 1-28; Josephs Fruton, Molecules and Life: Historical Essays on the Interplay of Chemistry and Biology (New York: John Wiley, 1972), pp. 170-179 ; Emil L. Smith, "Amino Acid Sequences of Proteins - The Beginnings," in The Origins of Modern Biochemistry: A Retrospect on Proteins, ed. P. R. Srinivasan, Joseph S. Fruton, and John T. Edsal (New York: Nsw York Academy of Sciences, 1979).
16. The sequence of amino acids in the β chain was published in 1951, the α chain in 1953, and the positions of the disulfide bridges holding the two chains together in 1955; see: Frederick Sanger, "Sequences, Sequences, and Sequences." Ann. Rev. Biochem., 57 (1988), 1-28; Josephs Fruton, Molecules and Life: Historical Essays on the Interplay of Chemistry and Biology (New York: John Wiley, 1972), pp. 170-179 ; Emil L. Smith, "Amino Acid Sequences of Proteins - The Beginnings," in The Origins of Modern Biochemistry: A Retrospect on Proteins, ed. P. R. Srinivasan, Joseph S. Fruton, and John T. Edsal (New York: Nsw York Academy of Sciences, 1979).
17. The ornithologist Charles G. Sbley characterized the nucleotide sequences of DNA as the "ultimate of ultimates" in: Charles G. Sibley, "The Comparative Morphology of Protein Molecules as Data for Classification," Sys. Zool., 11 (1962), 108-118.
18. Pig, sheep, horse, cow, and whale insulin were compared; see J. I. Harris, F. Sanger, and M. A. McNaughton, "Species Differences in Insulin," Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 65 (1956): 427-438.
19. Sibley "Comparative Morphology of Protein Molecules" (above, n. 8). On the other hand, biochemical methods differed from traditional comparative morphology in that the fine structure of macromolecules could not be observed, but had to be studied indirectly by various chemical and physical techniques; see Wright, "Experimental Taxonomy" (above, n. 5). Whether or not molecular characteristics were more fundamental than gross morphological characteristics was a matter of considerable debate, which closely paralleled earlier discussions about the significance of cytogenetic characteristics in taxonomy ; see Joel B. Hagen, "Experimentalists and naturalists in 20th Century Botany: Experimental Taxonomy, 1920-1950," J. Hist. Biol., 17 (1984), 249-270.
20. Sibley "Comparative Morphology of Protein Molecules" (above, n. 8). On the other hand, biochemical methods differed from traditional comparative morphology in that the fine structure of macromolecules could not be observed, but had to be studied indirectly by various chemical and physical techniques; see Wright, "Experimental Taxonomy" (above, n. 5). Whether or not molecular characteristics were more fundamental than gross morphological characteristics was a matter of considerable debate, which closely paralleled earlier discussions about the significance of cytogenetic characteristics in taxonomy ; see Joel B. Hagen, "Experimentalists and naturalists in 20th Century Botany: Experimental Taxonomy, 1920-1950," J. Hist. Biol., 17 (1984), 249-270.
21. Sibley "Comparative Morphology of Protein Molecules" (above, n. 8). On the other hand, biochemical methods differed from traditional comparative morphology in that the fine structure of macromolecules could not be observed, but had to be studied indirectly by various chemical and physical techniques; see Wright, "Experimental Taxonomy" (above, n. 5). Whether or not molecular characteristics were more fundamental than gross morphological characteristics was a matter of considerable debate, which closely paralleled earlier discussions about the significance of cytogenetic characteristics in taxonomy ; see Joel B. Hagen, "Experimentalists and naturalists in 20th Century Botany: Experimental Taxonomy, 1920-1950," J. Hist. Biol., 17 (1984), 249-270.
22. Sibley, "Comparative Morphology of Protein Molecules" (above, n. 8).
23. Margaret O. Dayhoff, Atlas of Protein Sequence and Structure (Silver Spring, MD: National Biomedical Research Foundation, 1965).
24. Emile Zuckerkandl, "The Evolution of Hemoglobin," Sci. Amer., 212: 5 (1965), 110-118; see also: Christian Anfinson, Molecular Basis of Evolution (New York: John Wiley, 1959), p. 14; Margaret O. Dayhoff, "Computer Analysis of Protein Evolution," Sci. Amer., 221: 1 (1969), 87-95. Metaphors mixing ideas of historical investigation of the deep past with the rigorous methodology of laboratory science were common during this period; for example, see Philip H. Abelson, "Paleobiochemistry," Sci. Amer., 195: 1 (1956), 83-92; Geoffrey Eglinton and Melvin Calvin, "Chemical Fossils," Sci. Amer., 216: 1 (1967), 32-43.
25. Emile Zuckerkandl, "The Evolution of Hemoglobin," Sci. Amer., 212: 5 (1965), 110-118; see also: Christian Anfinson, Molecular Basis of Evolution (New York: John Wiley, 1959), p. 14; Margaret O. Dayhoff, "Computer Analysis of Protein Evolution," Sci. Amer., 221: 1 (1969), 87-95. Metaphors mixing ideas of historical investigation of the deep past with the rigorous methodology of laboratory science were common during this period; for example, see Philip H. Abelson, "Paleobiochemistry," Sci. Amer., 195: 1 (1956), 83-92; Geoffrey Eglinton and Melvin Calvin, "Chemical Fossils," Sci. Amer., 216: 1 (1967), 32-43.
26. Emile Zuckerkandl, "The Evolution of Hemoglobin," Sci. Amer., 212: 5 (1965), 110-118; see also: Christian Anfinson, Molecular Basis of Evolution (New York: John Wiley, 1959), p. 14; Margaret O. Dayhoff, "Computer Analysis of Protein Evolution," Sci. Amer., 221: 1 (1969), 87-95. Metaphors mixing ideas of historical investigation of the deep past with the rigorous methodology of laboratory science were common during this period; for example, see Philip H. Abelson, "Paleobiochemistry," Sci. Amer., 195: 1 (1956), 83-92; Geoffrey Eglinton and Melvin Calvin, "Chemical Fossils," Sci. Amer., 216: 1 (1967), 32-43.
27. Emile Zuckerkandl, "The Evolution of Hemoglobin," Sci. Amer., 212: 5 (1965), 110-118; see also: Christian Anfinson, Molecular Basis of Evolution (New York: John Wiley, 1959), p. 14; Margaret O. Dayhoff, "Computer Analysis of Protein Evolution," Sci. Amer., 221: 1 (1969), 87-95. Metaphors mixing ideas of historical investigation of the deep past with the rigorous methodology of laboratory science were common during this period; for example, see Philip H. Abelson, "Paleobiochemistry," Sci. Amer., 195: 1 (1956), 83-92; Geoffrey Eglinton and Melvin Calvin, "Chemical Fossils," Sci. Amer., 216: 1 (1967), 32-43.
28. Emile Zuckerkandl, "The Evolution of Hemoglobin," Sci. Amer., 212: 5 (1965), 110-118; see also: Christian Anfinson, Molecular Basis of Evolution (New York: John Wiley, 1959), p. 14; Margaret O. Dayhoff, "Computer Analysis of Protein Evolution," Sci. Amer., 221: 1 (1969), 87-95. Metaphors mixing ideas of historical investigation of the deep past with the rigorous methodology of laboratory science were common during this period; for example, see Philip H. Abelson, "Paleobiochemistry," Sci. Amer., 195: 1 (1956), 83-92; Geoffrey Eglinton and Melvin Calvin, "Chemical Fossils," Sci. Amer., 216: 1 (1967), 32-43.
29. Emile Zuckerkandl and Linus Pauling, "Evolutionary Divergence and Convergence in Proteins," in Evolving Genes and Proteins, ed. Vernon Bryson and Henry J. Vogel (New York: Academic Press, 1965). The general idea of a molecular dock, if not the term, had been discussed for several years previously; see the brief historical sketch in Zuckerkandl, "On the Molecular Evolutionary Clock," J. Mol. Evol., 26 (1987), 34-36 and also, Emanuel Margoliash, "Primary Structure and Evolution of Cytochromec," Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, Washington, 50 (1963), 672-679.
30. Emile Zuckerkandl and Linus Pauling, "Evolutionary Divergence and Convergence in Proteins," in Evolving Genes and Proteins, ed. Vernon Bryson and Henry J. Vogel (New York: Academic Press, 1965). The general idea of a molecular dock, if not the term, had been discussed for several years previously; see the brief historical sketch in Zuckerkandl, "On the Molecular Evolutionary Clock," J. Mol. Evol., 26 (1987), 34-36 and also, Emanuel Margoliash, "Primary Structure and Evolution of Cytochromec," Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, Washington, 50 (1963), 672-679.
31. Emile Zuckerkandl and Linus Pauling, "Evolutionary Divergence and Convergence in Proteins," in Evolving Genes and Proteins, ed. Vernon Bryson and Henry J. Vogel (New York: Academic Press, 1965). The general idea of a molecular dock, if not the term, had been discussed for several years previously; see the brief historical sketch in Zuckerkandl, "On the Molecular Evolutionary Clock," J. Mol. Evol., 26 (1987), 34-36 and also, Emanuel Margoliash, "Primary Structure and Evolution of Cytochromec," Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, Washington, 50 (1963), 672-679.
32. Zuckerkandl, "Molecular Evolutionary Clock" (above, n. 14); Zuckerkandl, "Evolution of Hemoglobin" (above, n. 13).
33. Zuckerkandl, "Molecular Evolutionary Clock" (above, n. 14); Zuckerkandl, "Evolution of Hemoglobin" (above, n. 13).
34. Ibid., see also Margaret O. Dayhoff, Richard V. Eck, Marie A. Chang, and Minnie R. Sochard, Atlas of Protein Sequence and Structure 1965 (Silver Spring, MD: National Biomedical Research Foundation, 1965), pp. 1-2.
35. Smith, "Amino Acid Sequences" (above, n. 7). The length of cytochrome c varies in different taxa. Most vertebrates have a protein 104 amino acids long, but wheat cytochrome c is 112 amino acids long, and several other taxa have molecules of intermediate length. A brief history of this early research can be found in Emanuel Margoliash and Abel Shejter, "How Does a Small Protein Become so Popular?: A Succinct Account of the Development of Our Understanding of Cytochrome C," in Cytochrome C: A Multidisciplinary Approach, ed. Robert A. Scott and A. Grant Mauk (Saulsalito, CA, University Science Books, 1996).
36. Smith, "Amino Acid Sequences" (above, n. 7). The length of cytochrome c varies in different taxa. Most vertebrates have a protein 104 amino acids long, but wheat cytochrome c is 112 amino acids long, and several other taxa have molecules of intermediate length. A brief history of this early research can be found in Emanuel Margoliash and Abel Shejter, "How Does a Small Protein Become so Popular?: A Succinct Account of the Development of Our Understanding of Cytochrome C," in Cytochrome C: A Multidisciplinary Approach, ed. Robert A. Scott and A. Grant Mauk (Saulsalito, CA, University Science Books, 1996).
37. Dayhoff et al. (above, n. 16).
38. Walter M. Fitch and Emanuel Margoliash, "Construction of Phylogenetic Trees," Science, 155 (1967), 279-284; Margaret O. Dayhoff and Richard V. Eck, "A Model of Evolutionary Change in Proteins," in Margaret O. Dayhoff and Ri chard V. Eck, Atlas of Protein Sequence and Structure 1967-68 (Silver Spring, MD: National Biomedical Research Foundati on, 1968); Margaret O. Dayhoff and Chan M. Park, "Cytochrome c: Building a Phylogenetic Tree," in Atlas of Protein Sequence and Structure 1969, ed. Dayhoff (Silver Spring, MD: National Biomedical Research Foundati on, 1969); Dayhoff, "Computer Analysis of Protein Evolution" (above, n. 13).
39. Walter M. Fitch and Emanuel Margoliash, "Construction of Phylogenetic Trees," Science, 155 (1967), 279-284; Margaret O. Dayhoff and Richard V. Eck, "A Model of Evolutionary Change in Proteins," in Margaret O. Dayhoff and Ri chard V. Eck, Atlas of Protein Sequence and Structure 1967-68 (Silver Spring, MD: National Biomedical Research Foundati on, 1968); Margaret O. Dayhoff and Chan M. Park, "Cytochrome c: Building a Phylogenetic Tree," in Atlas of Protein Sequence and Structure 1969, ed. Dayhoff (Silver Spring, MD: National Biomedical Research Foundati on, 1969); Dayhoff, "Computer Analysis of Protein Evolution" (above, n. 13).
40. Walter M. Fitch and Emanuel Margoliash, "Construction of Phylogenetic Trees," Science, 155 (1967), 279-284; Margaret O. Dayhoff and Richard V. Eck, "A Model of Evolutionary Change in Proteins," in Margaret O. Dayhoff and Ri chard V. Eck, Atlas of Protein Sequence and Structure 1967-68 (Silver Spring, MD: National Biomedical Research Foundati on, 1968); Margaret O. Dayhoff and Chan M. Park, "Cytochrome c: Building a Phylogenetic Tree," in Atlas of Protein Sequence and Structure 1969, ed. Dayhoff (Silver Spring, MD: National Biomedical Research Foundati on, 1969); Dayhoff, "Computer Analysis of Protein Evolution" (above, n. 13).
41. Walter M. Fitch and Emanuel Margoliash, "Construction of Phylogenetic Trees," Science, 155 (1967), 279-284; Margaret O. Dayhoff and Richard V. Eck, "A Model of Evolutionary Change in Proteins," in Margaret O. Dayhoff and Ri chard V. Eck, Atlas of Protein Sequence and Structure 1967-68 (Silver Spring, MD: National Biomedical Research Foundati on, 1968); Margaret O. Dayhoff and Chan M. Park, "Cytochrome c: Building a Phylogenetic Tree," in Atlas of Protein Sequence and Structure 1969, ed. Dayhoff (Silver Spring, MD: National Biomedical Research Foundati on, 1969); Dayhoff, "Computer Analysis of Protein Evolution" (above, n. 13).
42. For a general discussion of the computational process, see Dayhoff, "Computer Analysis of Protein Evolution" (above, n. 13).
43. Dayhoff, Eck, Chang, and Sochard, Atlas of Protein Sequence, pp. 1-2 (above, n. 16). Not surprisingly, taxonomists like George Gaylord Simpson reacted heatedly to such claims. Simpson complained of the "semi-circular reasoning" of molecular evolution: when a protein phylogeny agreed with the non-molecular phylogeny it was taken as a validation of the new method, when the two phylogenies disagreed it was used to argue for the superiority of molecular methods; see George Gaylord Simpson, "Organisms and Molecules in Evolution," Science, 146 (1964), 1535-1539.
44. Dayhoff, Eck, Chang, and Sochard, Atlas of Protein Sequence, pp. 1-2 (above, n. 16). Not surprisingly, taxonomists like George Gaylord Simpson reacted heatedly to such claims. Simpson complained of the "semi-circular reasoning" of molecular evolution: when a protein phylogeny agreed with the non-molecular phylogeny it was taken as a validation of the new method, when the two phylogenies disagreed it was used to argue for the superiority of molecular methods; see George Gaylord Simpson, "Organisms and Molecules in Evolution," Science, 146 (1964), 1535-1539.
45. The technical difficulties facing DNA sequencing during the 1960s and early 1970s are discussed by Sanger, "Sequences, Sequences, Sequences" (above, n. 7). As I discuss later in this paper, during this period other molecular techniques such as DNA hybridization were used by some taxonomists to explore phylogenetic relationships.
46. For example, note the dark humor in Howard K. Schachman's comments on the fates of the two specialties: Harwood K. Schachman, "Summary Remarks: A Retrospect on Proteins," in The Origins of Modern Biochemistry: A Retrospect on Proteins, ed. P. R. Srinivasan, Joseph S. Fruton, and John T. Edsal (New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1979). The disciplinary politics of this episode are discussed by Abir-Am, "Politics of Macromolecules" (above, n. 3).
47. For example, note the dark humor in Howard K. Schachman's comments on the fates of the two specialties: Harwood K. Schachman, "Summary Remarks: A Retrospect on Proteins," in The Origins of Modern Biochemistry: A Retrospect on Proteins, ed. P. R. Srinivasan, Joseph S. Fruton, and John T. Edsal (New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1979). The disciplinary politics of this episode are discussed by Abir-Am, "Politics of Macromolecules" (above, n. 3).
48. See Zuckerkandl's comments during the discussion of his paper on the molecular clock: Zuckerkand and Pauling, "Evolutionary Divergence and Convergence in Proteins" (above, n. 14).
49. See Smith's comments on the paper that he co-authored with Emanuel Margoliash in Bryson and Vogel, Evolving Genes and Proteins (above, n. 14).
50. Ernst Mayr, "The New Systematics," in Taxonomic Biochemistry and Serology, ed. C. A. Leone (New York: Ronald Press, 1964).
51. Richard E. Blackwelder, Taxonomy: A Text and Reference Book (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1967), pp. 340-342.
52. Ibid., pp. 154-155.
53. Various aspects of the rise of the new systematics have been explored by a number of historians; see: John Dean, "Controversy over Classification: A Case Study from the History of Botany," in Natural Order: Historical Studies of Scientific Culture, ed. Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1979); Hagen, "Experimentalists and Naturalists" (above, n. 5); David. L. Hull, Science as a Process: An Evolutionary Account of the Social and Conceptual Development of Science (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988); Keith Vernon, "Desperately Seeking Status: Evolutionary Systematics and the Taxonomists' Search for Respectability 1940-1960," Brit. J. Hist. Sci., 26 (1993), 207-227.
54. Various aspects of the rise of the new systematics have been explored by a number of historians; see: John Dean, "Controversy over Classification: A Case Study from the History of Botany," in Natural Order: Historical Studies of Scientific Culture, ed. Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1979); Hagen, "Experimentalists and Naturalists" (above, n. 5); David. L. Hull, Science as a Process: An Evolutionary Account of the Social and Conceptual Development of Science (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988); Keith Vernon, "Desperately Seeking Status: Evolutionary Systematics and the Taxonomists' Search for Respectability 1940-1960," Brit. J. Hist. Sci., 26 (1993), 207-227.
55. Various aspects of the rise of the new systematics have been explored by a number of historians; see: John Dean, "Controversy over Classification: A Case Study from the History of Botany," in Natural Order: Historical Studies of Scientific Culture, ed. Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1979); Hagen, "Experimentalists and Naturalists" (above, n. 5); David. L. Hull, Science as a Process: An Evolutionary Account of the Social and Conceptual Development of Science (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988); Keith Vernon, "Desperately Seeking Status: Evolutionary Systematics and the Taxonomists' Search for Respectability 1940-1960," Brit. J. Hist. Sci., 26 (1993), 207-227.
56. Various aspects of the rise of the new systematics have been explored by a number of historians; see: John Dean, "Controversy over Classification: A Case Study from the History of Botany," in Natural Order: Historical Studies of Scientific Culture, ed. Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1979); Hagen, "Experimentalists and Naturalists" (above, n. 5); David. L. Hull, Science as a Process: An Evolutionary Account of the Social and Conceptual Development of Science (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988); Keith Vernon, "Desperately Seeking Status: Evolutionary Systematics and the Taxonomists' Search for Respectability 1940-1960," Brit. J. Hist. Sci., 26 (1993), 207-227.
57. Ernst Mayr, "The New versus the Classical in Science," Science, 141 (1963), 765; see also Beatty, "Proximate/Ultimate Distinction" (above, n. 3); Cain, "Building a Temporal Biology" (above, n. 3).
58. Ernst Mayr, "The New versus the Classical in Science," Science, 141 (1963), 765; see also Beatty, "Proximate/Ultimate Distinction" (above, n. 3); Cain, "Building a Temporal Biology" (above, n. 3).
59. Ernst Mayr, "The New versus the Classical in Science," Science, 141 (1963), 765; see also Beatty, "Proximate/Ultimate Distinction" (above, n. 3); Cain, "Building a Temporal Biology" (above, n. 3).
60. For important non-molecular aspects of Mayr's and Simpson's dilemma seethe broad overviews provided by Hull, Science as a Process (above, n. 29) and Vernon, "Desperately Seeking Status" (above, n. 29).
61. For important non-molecular aspects of Mayr's and Simpson's dilemma seethe broad overviews provided by Hull, Science as a Process (above, n. 29) and Vernon, "Desperately Seeking Status" (above, n. 29).
62. Simpson, "Organisms and Molecules" (above, n. 21).
63. Evidence for "clarifying confrontation" between evolutionary biologists and molecular evolutionists can befound in records of discussions at symposia during the 1960s; see: Bryson and Vogel, Evolving Genes and Proteins (above, n. 14); Sherwood L. Washburn (ed.), Classification and Human Evolution (Chicago: Aldine, 1965). See also, Mayr's introductory remarks to a symposium on biochemical evolution sponsored by the Federati on of American Societies for Experimental Biology: Ernst Mayr, "From Molecules to Organic Diversity," Federation Proc., 23 (1964), 1231-1235, and Simpson's "Organisms and Molecules" (above, n. 21), which was adapted from a presentation at a 1964 symposium on protein biochemistry.
64. Evidence for "clarifying confrontation" between evolutionary biologists and molecular evolutionists can befound in records of discussions at symposia during the 1960s; see: Bryson and Vogel, Evolving Genes and Proteins (above, n. 14); Sherwood L. Washburn (ed.), Classification and Human Evolution (Chicago: Aldine, 1965). See also, Mayr's introductory remarks to a symposium on biochemical evolution sponsored by the Federati on of American Societies for Experimental Biology: Ernst Mayr, "From Molecules to Organic Diversity," Federation Proc., 23 (1964), 1231-1235, and Simpson's "Organisms and Molecules" (above, n. 21), which was adapted from a presentation at a 1964 symposium on protein biochemistry.
65. Evidence for "clarifying confrontation" between evolutionary biologists and molecular evolutionists can befound in records of discussions at symposia during the 1960s; see: Bryson and Vogel, Evolving Genes and Proteins (above, n. 14); Sherwood L. Washburn (ed.), Classification and Human Evolution (Chicago: Aldine, 1965). See also, Mayr's introductory remarks to a symposium on biochemical evolution sponsored by the Federati on of American Societies for Experimental Biology: Ernst Mayr, "From Molecules to Organic Diversity," Federation Proc., 23 (1964), 1231-1235, and Simpson's "Organisms and Molecules" (above, n. 21), which was adapted from a presentation at a 1964 symposium on protein biochemistry.
66. Evidence for "clarifying confrontation" between evolutionary biologists and molecular evolutionists can befound in records of discussions at symposia during the 1960s; see: Bryson and Vogel, Evolving Genes and Proteins (above, n. 14); Sherwood L. Washburn (ed.), Classification and Human Evolution (Chicago: Aldine, 1965). See also, Mayr's introductory remarks to a symposium on biochemical evolution sponsored by the Federati on of American Societies for Experimental Biology: Ernst Mayr, "From Molecules to Organic Diversity," Federation Proc., 23 (1964), 1231-1235, and Simpson's "Organisms and Molecules" (above, n. 21), which was adapted from a presentation at a 1964 symposium on protein biochemistry.
67. Mayr, "From Molecules to Organic Diversity" (above, n. 33). Simpson, "Organisms and Molecules" (above, n. 21).
68. Mayr, "From Molecules to Organic Diversity" (above, n. 33). Simpson, "Organisms and Molecules" (above, n. 21).
69. Leo F. Laporte, "Simpson's Tempo and Mode in Evolution Revisited," Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., 127 (1993), 365-417; Cain, "Building a Temporal Biology" (above, n. 3).
70. Leo F. Laporte, "Simpson's Tempo and Mode in Evolution Revisited," Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., 127 (1993), 365-417; Cain, "Building a Temporal Biology" (above, n. 3).
71. For example, see Mayr's comments on the two papers of Margoliash and Smith, and Zuckerkandl and Pauling, in Bryson and Vogel, Evolving Genes and Protans (above, n. 14); Simpson, "Organisms and Molecules" (above, n. 21).
72. For example, see Mayr's comments on the two papers of Margoliash and Smith, and Zuckerkandl and Pauling, in Bryson and Vogel, Evolving Genes and Protans (above, n. 14); Simpson, "Organisms and Molecules" (above, n. 21).
73. George Gaylord Simpson, "Primate Taxonomy and Recent Studies of Nonhuman Primates," Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 102 (1962), 497-514.
74. Emile Zuckerkandl and Linus Pauling, "Molecules as Documents of Evolutionary History." J. Theoret. Biol., 8 (1965), 357-366; Dayhoff, "Computer Analysis of Protein Evolution" (above, n. 13); Sibley, "Comparative Morphology of Protein Molecules" (above, n. 8).
75. Emile Zuckerkandl and Linus Pauling, "Molecules as Documents of Evolutionary History." J. Theoret. Biol., 8 (1965), 357-366; Dayhoff, "Computer Analysis of Protein Evolution" (above, n. 13); Sibley, "Comparative Morphology of Protein Molecules" (above, n. 8).
76. Emile Zuckerkandl and Linus Pauling, "Molecules as Documents of Evolutionary History." J. Theoret. Biol., 8 (1965), 357-366; Dayhoff, "Computer Analysis of Protein Evolution" (above, n. 13); Sibley, "Comparative Morphology of Protein Molecules" (above, n. 8).
77. Mayr, "From Molecules to Organic Diversity" (above, n. 33); Simpson, "Organisms and Molecules" (above, n. 21). See also Zuckerkand and Pauling, "Evolutionary Divergence and Convergence in Proteins," and Mayr's comments on the paper in Bryson and Vogel, Evolving Genes and Proteins (above, n. 14).
78. Mayr, "From Molecules to Organic Diversity" (above, n. 33); Simpson, "Organisms and Molecules" (above, n. 21). See also Zuckerkand and Pauling, "Evolutionary Divergence and Convergence in Proteins," and Mayr's comments on the paper in Bryson and Vogel, Evolving Genes and Proteins (above, n. 14).
79. Mayr, "From Molecules to Organic Diversity" (above, n. 33); Simpson, "Organisms and Molecules" (above, n. 21). See also Zuckerkand and Pauling, "Evolutionary Divergence and Convergence in Proteins," and Mayr's comments on the paper in Bryson and Vogel, Evolving Genes and Proteins (above, n. 14).
80. Mayr, "From Molecules to Organic Diversity" (above, n. 33); Simpson, "Organisms and Molecules" (above, n. 21). See also Zuckerkand and Pauling, "Evolutionary Divergence and Convergence in Proteins," and Mayr's comments on the paper in Bryson and Vogel, Evolving Genes and Proteins (above, n. 14).
81. Dietrich, "Paradox and Persuasion;" Beatty, "Proximate/Ultimate Distinction" and Cain, "Building a Temporal Biology" (above, n. 3). The naturalists' calls for synthesis were often combined with sharp attacks on the evolutionary misconceptions of molecular biologists; for example, see: Mayr, "From Molecules to Organic Diversity" (above, n. 33) and Simpson, "Organisms and Molecules" (above, n. 21).
82. Dietrich, "Paradox and Persuasion;" Beatty, "Proximate/Ultimate Distinction" and Cain, "Building a Temporal Biology" (above, n. 3). The naturalists' calls for synthesis were often combined with sharp attacks on the evolutionary misconceptions of molecular biologists; for example, see: Mayr, "From Molecules to Organic Diversity" (above, n. 33) and Simpson, "Organisms and Molecules" (above, n. 21).
83. Dietrich, "Paradox and Persuasion;" Beatty, "Proximate/Ultimate Distinction" and Cain, "Building a Temporal Biology" (above, n. 3). The naturalists' calls for synthesis were often combined with sharp attacks on the evolutionary misconceptions of molecular biologists; for example, see: Mayr, "From Molecules to Organic Diversity" (above, n. 33) and Simpson, "Organisms and Molecules" (above, n. 21).
84. Dietrich, "Paradox and Persuasion;" Beatty, "Proximate/Ultimate Distinction" and Cain, "Building a Temporal Biology" (above, n. 3). The naturalists' calls for synthesis were often combined with sharp attacks on the evolutionary misconceptions of molecular biologists; for example, see: Mayr, "From Molecules to Organic Diversity" (above, n. 33) and Simpson, "Organisms and Molecules" (above, n. 21).
85. Dietrich, "Paradox and Persuasion;" Beatty, "Proximate/Ultimate Distinction" and Cain, "Building a Temporal Biology" (above, n. 3). The naturalists' calls for synthesis were often combined with sharp attacks on the evolutionary misconceptions of molecular biologists; for example, see: Mayr, "From Molecules to Organic Diversity" (above, n. 33) and Simpson, "Organisms and Molecules" (above, n. 21).
86. Ibid.
87. Mayr, "Cause and Effect" (above, n. 2). The historical significance of Mayr's paper and its continuing importance for biologists and philosophers of biology are discussed in Beatty, "Proximate/Ultimate Distinction" (above, n. 3). Although Mayr's article appeared fairly early in the development of molecular biology, there is little evidence that later events significantly changed his thinking on the dichotomy between a functional biology (including molecular biology) and an evolutionary biology resting on the naturalist tradition: see Ernst Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1982), pp. 67-73.
88. Mayr, "Cause and Effect" (above, n. 2). The historical significance of Mayr's paper and its continuing importance for biologists and philosophers of biology are discussed in Beatty, "Proximate/Ultimate Distinction" (above, n. 3). Although Mayr's article appeared fairly early in the development of molecular biology, there is little evidence that later events significantly changed his thinking on the dichotomy between a functional biology (including molecular biology) and an evolutionary biology resting on the naturalist tradition: see Ernst Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1982), pp. 67-73.
89. Mayr, "Cause and Effect" (above, n. 2). The historical significance of Mayr's paper and its continuing importance for biologists and philosophers of biology are discussed in Beatty, "Proximate/Ultimate Distinction" (above, n. 3). Although Mayr's article appeared fairly early in the development of molecular biology, there is little evidence that later events significantly changed his thinking on the dichotomy between a functional biology (including molecular biology) and an evolutionary biology resting on the naturalist tradition: see Ernst Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1982), pp. 67-73.
90. Mayr, "Cause and Effect" (above, n. 2).
91. Margoliash and Smith, "Structural and Functional Aspects of Cytochrome C" in Evolving Genes and Proteins, ed. Vernon Bryson and Henry J. Vogel (New York: Academic Press, 1965); Zuckerkandl and Pauling, "Evolutionary Divergence and Convergence" (above, n. 14). Dayhoff, "Computer Analysis of Protein Evolution" (above, n. 13).
92. Margoliash and Smith, "Structural and Functional Aspects of Cytochrome C" in Evolving Genes and Proteins, ed. Vernon Bryson and Henry J. Vogel (New York: Academic Press, 1965); Zuckerkandl and Pauling, "Evolutionary Divergence and Convergence" (above, n. 14). Dayhoff, "Computer Analysis of Protein Evolution" (above, n. 13).
93. Margoliash and Smith, "Structural and Functional Aspects of Cytochrome C" in Evolving Genes and Proteins, ed. Vernon Bryson and Henry J. Vogel (New York: Academic Press, 1965); Zuckerkandl and Pauling, "Evolutionary Divergence and Convergence" (above, n. 14). Dayhoff, "Computer Analysis of Protein Evolution" (above, n. 13).
94. Forbrief accounts of Dayhoff's career, see: Margaret Oakley Dayhoff, 1925-1983," Bull. Math. Biol., 46 (1984), 467-472; Lois T. Hunt, "Margaret O. Dayhoff, 1925-1983," DNA, 2 (1983), 87-98; John R. Jungck, "Margaret Oakley Dayhoff, 'Harnessing the Computer Revolution.'" Amer. Biol. Teacher, 47 (1985), 9-10.
95. Forbrief accounts of Dayhoff's career, see: Margaret Oakley Dayhoff, 1925-1983," Bull. Math. Biol., 46 (1984), 467-472; Lois T. Hunt, "Margaret O. Dayhoff, 1925-1983," DNA, 2 (1983), 87-98; John R. Jungck, "Margaret Oakley Dayhoff, 'Harnessing the Computer Revolution.'" Amer. Biol. Teacher, 47 (1985), 9-10.
96. Forbrief accounts of Dayhoff's career, see: Margaret Oakley Dayhoff, 1925-1983," Bull. Math. Biol., 46 (1984), 467-472; Lois T. Hunt, "Margaret O. Dayhoff, 1925-1983," DNA, 2 (1983), 87-98; John R. Jungck, "Margaret Oakley Dayhoff, 'Harnessing the Computer Revolution.'" Amer. Biol. Teacher, 47 (1985), 9-10.
97. Zuckerkandl, "Evolution of Hemoglobin" and Dayhoff, "Computer Analysis of Protein Evolution" (above, n. 13).
98. Zuckerkandl, "Evolution of Hemoglobin" and Dayhoff, "Computer Analysis of Protein Evolution" (above, n. 13).
99. Beatty, "Proximate/Ultimate Distinction" (above, n. 3).
100. Mayr complained about the molecular biology bandwagon and its ill effects on classical natural history, but didn't mention naturalists who were using molecular techniques in his "New versus Classical" (above, n. 30); Mayr's complaint about the bandwagon effect should not be dismissed as anachronistic, however, because it continues to be raised. For example, see Kevin J. Gaston and Robert M. May, "Taxonomy of Taxonomists," Nature, 356 (1992), 281-282.
101. Mayr complained about the molecular biology bandwagon and its ill effects on classical natural history, but didn't mention naturalists who were using molecular techniques in his "New versus Classical" (above, n. 30); Mayr's complaint about the bandwagon effect should not be dismissed as anachronistic, however, because it continues to be raised. For example, see Kevin J. Gaston and Robert M. May, "Taxonomy of Taxonomists," Nature, 356 (1992), 281-282.
102. Charles G. Sibley, "Species Formation in the Red-Eyed Towhees of Mexico," Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool., 50 (1950), 109-193.
103. Sibley's towhee study was used as an example in several places in George Gaylord Simpson, Anne Roe, and Richard C. Lewontin, Quantitative Zoology, rev., ed. (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1960).
104. Sibley, "Species Formation in Red-Eyed Towhees" (above, n. 49).
105. Charles G. Sibley, Systematic Biology: Proceedings of an International Conference (Washington: National Academy of Sciences, 1969), p. 409.
106. Charles G. Sibley, "The Electrophoretic Patterns of Avi an Egg-White Proteins as Taxonomic Characters," Ibis, 102 (1960), 215-284; Sibley, "On the Phylogeny and Classification of Living Birds," J. Avian Biol., 25 (1994), 87-92; Simpson, "Primate Taxonomy" (above, n. 37); Ernst Mayr, Principles of Systematic Zoology (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969), p. 134.
107. Charles G. Sibley, "The Electrophoretic Patterns of Avi an Egg-White Proteins as Taxonomic Characters," Ibis, 102 (1960), 215-284; Sibley, "On the Phylogeny and Classification of Living Birds," J. Avian Biol., 25 (1994), 87-92; Simpson, "Primate Taxonomy" (above, n. 37); Ernst Mayr, Principles of Systematic Zoology (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969), p. 134.
108. Charles G. Sibley, "The Electrophoretic Patterns of Avi an Egg-White Proteins as Taxonomic Characters," Ibis, 102 (1960), 215-284; Sibley, "On the Phylogeny and Classification of Living Birds," J. Avian Biol., 25 (1994), 87-92; Simpson, "Primate Taxonomy" (above, n. 37); Ernst Mayr, Principles of Systematic Zoology (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969), p. 134.
109. Charles G. Sibley, "The Electrophoretic Patterns of Avi an Egg-White Proteins as Taxonomic Characters," Ibis, 102 (1960), 215-284; Sibley, "On the Phylogeny and Classification of Living Birds," J. Avian Biol., 25 (1994), 87-92; Simpson, "Primate Taxonomy" (above, n. 37); Ernst Mayr, Principles of Systematic Zoology (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969), p. 134.
110. Sibley, "Comparative Morphology of Protein Molecules" (above, n. 8).
111. Sibley, "Phylogeny and Classification of Living Birds" (above, n. 53). The DNA-DNA hybridization technique is briefly described in Charles G. Sibley and Jon E. Ahlquist, "Reconstructing Bird Phylogeny by Comparing DNA's," Sci. Amer., 254: 2 (1986), 82-92.
112. Sibley, "Phylogeny and Classification of Living Birds" (above, n. 53). The DNA-DNA hybridization technique is briefly described in Charles G. Sibley and Jon E. Ahlquist, "Reconstructing Bird Phylogeny by Comparing DNA's," Sci. Amer., 254: 2 (1986), 82-92.
113. Charles G. Sibley and Jon E. Ahlquist, Phylogeny and Classification of Birds: A Study in Molecular Evolution (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990); Charles G. Sbiley and B. J. Monroe Jr., Distribution and Taxonomy of Birds of the World (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990).
114. Charles G. Sibley and Jon E. Ahlquist, Phylogeny and Classification of Birds: A Study in Molecular Evolution (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990); Charles G. Sbiley and B. J. Monroe Jr., Distribution and Taxonomy of Birds of the World (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990).
115. Simpson, "Primate Taxonomy" (above, n. 37); Ernst Mayr, "Trends in Avian Systematics," Ibis, 101 (1959), 293-302.
116. Simpson, "Primate Taxonomy" (above, n. 37); Ernst Mayr, "Trends in Avian Systematics," Ibis, 101 (1959), 293-302.
117. Seereviews by Peter Houde Quart. Rev. Biol., 67 (1992), 62-63; Frank Gill and Frederick H. Sheldon Science, 252 (1991), 1003-1005; and Jared Diamond Nature, 350 (1991), 537-538.
118. Seereviews by Peter Houde Quart. Rev. Biol., 67 (1992), 62-63; Frank Gill and Frederick H. Sheldon Science, 252 (1991), 1003-1005; and Jared Diamond Nature, 350 (1991), 537-538.
119. Seereviews by Peter Houde Quart. Rev. Biol., 67 (1992), 62-63; Frank Gill and Frederick H. Sheldon Science, 252 (1991), 1003-1005; and Jared Diamond Nature, 350 (1991), 537-538.
120. For example, Sibley and Ahlquist strengthened the claim that the flightless ratites (ostriches, emus, kiwis, etc.) formed a monophyletic group. However, their molecular data could not conclusively resolve the cladistic relationships within the group. At least six plausible phylogenetic hypotheses for the ratites, four based on molecular data, are currently held; see Krista Lee, Julie Feinstein, and Joel Cracraft, " The Phylogeny of Ratite Birds: Resolving the Conflicts Between Molecular and Morphological Data Sets," in Avian Molecular Evolution and Systematics, ed. David P. Mindell (San Diego: Academic Press, 1997).
121. Roger Lewin, "Conflict Over DNA Clock Results," Science, 241 (1988), 1598-1600, 1756-1759; see also the more restrained critique of DNA hybridization and references cited in David P. Mindell et al., " Phylogenetic Relationships among and within Select Avian Orders Based on Mitochondrial DNA," in Mindell, Avian Molecular Evolution (above, n. 59).
122. Roger Lewin, "Conflict Over DNA Clock Results," Science, 241 (1988), 1598-1600, 1756-1759; see also the more restrained critique of DNA hybridization and references cited in David P. Mindell et al., " Phylogenetic Relationships among and within Select Avian Orders Based on Mitochondrial DNA," in Mindell, Avian Molecular Evolution (above, n. 59).
123. This brief experimentation with protein taxonomy is mentioned in Mayr, "Trends in Avian Systematics" (above, n. 57).
124. Richard Burkhardt, "Ethology and Natural History," paper presented at a conference: "The Naturalist Tradition," Oregon State University, March 9, 1998.