Paradox and Persuasion: Negotiating the Place of Molecular Evolution within Evolutionary Biology

Journal of the History of Biology

Volumn 31, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 85-111

  Dietrich, Michael R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; EVOLUTION; HISTORY; MOLECULAR BIOLOGY;

EVOLUTION; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; MOLECULAR BIOLOGY;

EID: 0032013331     PISSN: 00225010     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1004257523100     Document Type: Article

References (161)

1. E. O. Wilson, Naturalist (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1994), 218-237.
2. Theodosius Dobzhansky, "Biology, Molecular and Organismic", Amer. Zool., 4 (1964), 443-452; quotation, 443.
3. Vassiliki B. Smocovitis, "Unifying Biology: The Evolutionary Synthesis and Evolutionary Biology", J. Hist. Biol., 25 (1992), 1-65; Smocovitis, Unifying Biology: The Evolutionary Synthesis and Evolutionary Biology (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996).
4. Vassiliki B. Smocovitis, "Unifying Biology: The Evolutionary Synthesis and Evolutionary Biology", J. Hist. Biol., 25 (1992), 1-65; Smocovitis, Unifying Biology: The Evolutionary Synthesis and Evolutionary Biology (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996).
5. John Beatty, "Evolutionary Anti-reductionism: Historical Reflections", Biol. Phil., 5 (1990), 199-210.
6. Marcel Florkin, Biochemical Evolution (New York: Academic Press, 1949).
7. E. T. Reichert had pioneered the use of molecular characters in phylogeny reconstruction beginning in 1907, but Reichert inspired few followers until the 1950s. See especially, Reichert and A. P. Brown, The Differentiation and Specificity of Corresponding Proteins and Other Vital Substances in Relation to Biological Classification and Organic Evolution: The Crystallography of Hemoglobins (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution, 1909).
8. Allan Wilson, "Protein Structure and the Role of Evolution", Molecular Biology Seminar, February 14, 1968, 4, Allan Wilson Papers, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley (hereafter AWP); Allan Wilson, Seminar Notes, May 19, 1970, Vancouver, AWP; D. G. Wallace, L. R. Maxson, and Allan Wilson, "Albumin Evolution in Frogs: A Test of the Evolutionary Clock Hypothesis", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 68 (1971), 3127-3129, at 3129; Allan Wilson, "Selectively Neutral Changes in Protein Evolution", unpublished MS, 1973, 18, AWP; Allan Wilson, "Is Protein Evolution at the Basis of Organismal Evolution?" Biosystematists Group, February 11, 1975, Berkeley, Calif., AWP; Allan Wilson, Linda Maxson, and Vincent Sarich, "Two Types of Molecular Evolution: Evidence from Studies of Interspecific Hybridization", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 71 (1974), 2834-2847; Allan Wilson, Vincent Sarich, and Linda Maxson, "The Importance of Gene Rearrangement in Evolution: Evidence from Studies on Rates of Chromosomal, Protein, and Anatomical Evolution", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 71 (1974), 3028-3030. See also Mary-Claire King and Allan Wilson, "Evolution at Two Levels in Humans and Chimpanzees", Science, 188 (1975), 107-116.
9. Allan Wilson, "Protein Structure and the Role of Evolution", Molecular Biology Seminar, February 14, 1968, 4, Allan Wilson Papers, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley (hereafter AWP); Allan Wilson, Seminar Notes, May 19, 1970, Vancouver, AWP; D. G. Wallace, L. R. Maxson, and Allan Wilson, "Albumin Evolution in Frogs: A Test of the Evolutionary Clock Hypothesis", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 68 (1971), 3127-3129, at 3129; Allan Wilson, "Selectively Neutral Changes in Protein Evolution", unpublished MS, 1973, 18, AWP; Allan Wilson, "Is Protein Evolution at the Basis of Organismal Evolution?" Biosystematists Group, February 11, 1975, Berkeley, Calif., AWP; Allan Wilson, Linda Maxson, and Vincent Sarich, "Two Types of Molecular Evolution: Evidence from Studies of Interspecific Hybridization", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 71 (1974), 2834-2847; Allan Wilson, Vincent Sarich, and Linda Maxson, "The Importance of Gene Rearrangement in Evolution: Evidence from Studies on Rates of Chromosomal, Protein, and Anatomical Evolution", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 71 (1974), 3028-3030. See also Mary-Claire King and Allan Wilson, "Evolution at Two Levels in Humans and Chimpanzees", Science, 188 (1975), 107-116.
10. Allan Wilson, "Protein Structure and the Role of Evolution", Molecular Biology Seminar, February 14, 1968, 4, Allan Wilson Papers, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley (hereafter AWP); Allan Wilson, Seminar Notes, May 19, 1970, Vancouver, AWP; D. G. Wallace, L. R. Maxson, and Allan Wilson, "Albumin Evolution in Frogs: A Test of the Evolutionary Clock Hypothesis", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 68 (1971), 3127-3129, at 3129; Allan Wilson, "Selectively Neutral Changes in Protein Evolution", unpublished MS, 1973, 18, AWP; Allan Wilson, "Is Protein Evolution at the Basis of Organismal Evolution?" Biosystematists Group, February 11, 1975, Berkeley, Calif., AWP; Allan Wilson, Linda Maxson, and Vincent Sarich, "Two Types of Molecular Evolution: Evidence from Studies of Interspecific Hybridization", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 71 (1974), 2834-2847; Allan Wilson, Vincent Sarich, and Linda Maxson, "The Importance of Gene Rearrangement in Evolution: Evidence from Studies on Rates of Chromosomal, Protein, and Anatomical Evolution", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 71 (1974), 3028-3030. See also Mary-Claire King and Allan Wilson, "Evolution at Two Levels in Humans and Chimpanzees", Science, 188 (1975), 107-116.
11. Allan Wilson, "Protein Structure and the Role of Evolution", Molecular Biology Seminar, February 14, 1968, 4, Allan Wilson Papers, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley (hereafter AWP); Allan Wilson, Seminar Notes, May 19, 1970, Vancouver, AWP; D. G. Wallace, L. R. Maxson, and Allan Wilson, "Albumin Evolution in Frogs: A Test of the Evolutionary Clock Hypothesis", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 68 (1971), 3127-3129, at 3129; Allan Wilson, "Selectively Neutral Changes in Protein Evolution", unpublished MS, 1973, 18, AWP; Allan Wilson, "Is Protein Evolution at the Basis of Organismal Evolution?" Biosystematists Group, February 11, 1975, Berkeley, Calif., AWP; Allan Wilson, Linda Maxson, and Vincent Sarich, "Two Types of Molecular Evolution: Evidence from Studies of Interspecific Hybridization", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 71 (1974), 2834-2847; Allan Wilson, Vincent Sarich, and Linda Maxson, "The Importance of Gene Rearrangement in Evolution: Evidence from Studies on Rates of Chromosomal, Protein, and Anatomical Evolution", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 71 (1974), 3028-3030. See also Mary-Claire King and Allan Wilson, "Evolution at Two Levels in Humans and Chimpanzees", Science, 188 (1975), 107-116.
12. Allan Wilson, "Protein Structure and the Role of Evolution", Molecular Biology Seminar, February 14, 1968, 4, Allan Wilson Papers, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley (hereafter AWP); Allan Wilson, Seminar Notes, May 19, 1970, Vancouver, AWP; D. G. Wallace, L. R. Maxson, and Allan Wilson, "Albumin Evolution in Frogs: A Test of the Evolutionary Clock Hypothesis", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 68 (1971), 3127-3129, at 3129; Allan Wilson, "Selectively Neutral Changes in Protein Evolution", unpublished MS, 1973, 18, AWP; Allan Wilson, "Is Protein Evolution at the Basis of Organismal Evolution?" Biosystematists Group, February 11, 1975, Berkeley, Calif., AWP; Allan Wilson, Linda Maxson, and Vincent Sarich, "Two Types of Molecular Evolution: Evidence from Studies of Interspecific Hybridization", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 71 (1974), 2834-2847; Allan Wilson, Vincent Sarich, and Linda Maxson, "The Importance of Gene Rearrangement in Evolution: Evidence from Studies on Rates of Chromosomal, Protein, and Anatomical Evolution", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 71 (1974), 3028-3030. See also Mary-Claire King and Allan Wilson, "Evolution at Two Levels in Humans and Chimpanzees", Science, 188 (1975), 107-116.
13. Allan Wilson, "Protein Structure and the Role of Evolution", Molecular Biology Seminar, February 14, 1968, 4, Allan Wilson Papers, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley (hereafter AWP); Allan Wilson, Seminar Notes, May 19, 1970, Vancouver, AWP; D. G. Wallace, L. R. Maxson, and Allan Wilson, "Albumin Evolution in Frogs: A Test of the Evolutionary Clock Hypothesis", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 68 (1971), 3127-3129, at 3129; Allan Wilson, "Selectively Neutral Changes in Protein Evolution", unpublished MS, 1973, 18, AWP; Allan Wilson, "Is Protein Evolution at the Basis of Organismal Evolution?" Biosystematists Group, February 11, 1975, Berkeley, Calif., AWP; Allan Wilson, Linda Maxson, and Vincent Sarich, "Two Types of Molecular Evolution: Evidence from Studies of Interspecific Hybridization", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 71 (1974), 2834-2847; Allan Wilson, Vincent Sarich, and Linda Maxson, "The Importance of Gene Rearrangement in Evolution: Evidence from Studies on Rates of Chromosomal, Protein, and Anatomical Evolution", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 71 (1974), 3028-3030. See also Mary-Claire King and Allan Wilson, "Evolution at Two Levels in Humans and Chimpanzees", Science, 188 (1975), 107-116.
14. Allan Wilson, "Protein Structure and the Role of Evolution", Molecular Biology Seminar, February 14, 1968, 4, Allan Wilson Papers, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley (hereafter AWP); Allan Wilson, Seminar Notes, May 19, 1970, Vancouver, AWP; D. G. Wallace, L. R. Maxson, and Allan Wilson, "Albumin Evolution in Frogs: A Test of the Evolutionary Clock Hypothesis", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 68 (1971), 3127-3129, at 3129; Allan Wilson, "Selectively Neutral Changes in Protein Evolution", unpublished MS, 1973, 18, AWP; Allan Wilson, "Is Protein Evolution at the Basis of Organismal Evolution?" Biosystematists Group, February 11, 1975, Berkeley, Calif., AWP; Allan Wilson, Linda Maxson, and Vincent Sarich, "Two Types of Molecular Evolution: Evidence from Studies of Interspecific Hybridization", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 71 (1974), 2834-2847; Allan Wilson, Vincent Sarich, and Linda Maxson, "The Importance of Gene Rearrangement in Evolution: Evidence from Studies on Rates of Chromosomal, Protein, and Anatomical Evolution", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 71 (1974), 3028-3030. See also Mary-Claire King and Allan Wilson, "Evolution at Two Levels in Humans and Chimpanzees", Science, 188 (1975), 107-116.
15. Allan Wilson, "Protein Structure and the Role of Evolution", Molecular Biology Seminar, February 14, 1968, 4, Allan Wilson Papers, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley (hereafter AWP); Allan Wilson, Seminar Notes, May 19, 1970, Vancouver, AWP; D. G. Wallace, L. R. Maxson, and Allan Wilson, "Albumin Evolution in Frogs: A Test of the Evolutionary Clock Hypothesis", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 68 (1971), 3127-3129, at 3129; Allan Wilson, "Selectively Neutral Changes in Protein Evolution", unpublished MS, 1973, 18, AWP; Allan Wilson, "Is Protein Evolution at the Basis of Organismal Evolution?" Biosystematists Group, February 11, 1975, Berkeley, Calif., AWP; Allan Wilson, Linda Maxson, and Vincent Sarich, "Two Types of Molecular Evolution: Evidence from Studies of Interspecific Hybridization", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 71 (1974), 2834-2847; Allan Wilson, Vincent Sarich, and Linda Maxson, "The Importance of Gene Rearrangement in Evolution: Evidence from Studies on Rates of Chromosomal, Protein, and Anatomical Evolution", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 71 (1974), 3028-3030. See also Mary-Claire King and Allan Wilson, "Evolution at Two Levels in Humans and Chimpanzees", Science, 188 (1975), 107-116.
16. Jan Sapp discusses the developmental paradox used to articulate a relationship between genetics and embryology: "Concepts of Organization: The Leverage of the Ciliate Protozoa", in A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott Gilbert (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University press, 1991), 229-258.
17. The term "bandwagon" was used by Ernst Mayr in "The New versus the Classical in Science" (editorial), Science, 141 (1963), 763. See also Beatty's discussion in "Evolutionary Anti-reductionism" (above, n. 4).
18. The term "bandwagon" was used by Ernst Mayr in "The New versus the Classical in Science" (editorial), Science, 141 (1963), 763. See also Beatty's discussion in "Evolutionary Anti-reductionism" (above, n. 4).
19. Ernst Mayr and William Provine, eds., The Evolutionary Synthesis (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980); Smocovitis, "Unifying Biology" (above, n. 3); Smocovitis, Unifying Biology (above, n. 3); Vassiliki B. Smocovitis, "Organizing Evolution: Founding the Society for the Study of Evolution", J. Hist. Biol., 27 (1994), 241-309; J. Cain, "Common Problems and Cooperative Solutions: Organizational Activity in Evolutionary Studies", Isis, 84 (1993), 1-25; J. Cain, "Ernst Mayr as Community Architect", Biol. Phil., 9 (1994), 387-427.
20. Ernst Mayr and William Provine, eds., The Evolutionary Synthesis (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980); Smocovitis, "Unifying Biology" (above, n. 3); Smocovitis, Unifying Biology (above, n. 3); Vassiliki B. Smocovitis, "Organizing Evolution: Founding the Society for the Study of Evolution", J. Hist. Biol., 27 (1994), 241-309; J. Cain, "Common Problems and Cooperative Solutions: Organizational Activity in Evolutionary Studies", Isis, 84 (1993), 1-25; J. Cain, "Ernst Mayr as Community Architect", Biol. Phil., 9 (1994), 387-427.
21. Ernst Mayr and William Provine, eds., The Evolutionary Synthesis (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980); Smocovitis, "Unifying Biology" (above, n. 3); Smocovitis, Unifying Biology (above, n. 3); Vassiliki B. Smocovitis, "Organizing Evolution: Founding the Society for the Study of Evolution", J. Hist. Biol., 27 (1994), 241-309; J. Cain, "Common Problems and Cooperative Solutions: Organizational Activity in Evolutionary Studies", Isis, 84 (1993), 1-25; J. Cain, "Ernst Mayr as Community Architect", Biol. Phil., 9 (1994), 387-427.
22. Ernst Mayr and William Provine, eds., The Evolutionary Synthesis (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980); Smocovitis, "Unifying Biology" (above, n. 3); Smocovitis, Unifying Biology (above, n. 3); Vassiliki B. Smocovitis, "Organizing Evolution: Founding the Society for the Study of Evolution", J. Hist. Biol., 27 (1994), 241-309; J. Cain, "Common Problems and Cooperative Solutions: Organizational Activity in Evolutionary Studies", Isis, 84 (1993), 1-25; J. Cain, "Ernst Mayr as Community Architect", Biol. Phil., 9 (1994), 387-427.
23. Ernst Mayr and William Provine, eds., The Evolutionary Synthesis (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980); Smocovitis, "Unifying Biology" (above, n. 3); Smocovitis, Unifying Biology (above, n. 3); Vassiliki B. Smocovitis, "Organizing Evolution: Founding the Society for the Study of Evolution", J. Hist. Biol., 27 (1994), 241-309; J. Cain, "Common Problems and Cooperative Solutions: Organizational Activity in Evolutionary Studies", Isis, 84 (1993), 1-25; J. Cain, "Ernst Mayr as Community Architect", Biol. Phil., 9 (1994), 387-427.
24. Ernst Mayr and William Provine, eds., The Evolutionary Synthesis (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980); Smocovitis, "Unifying Biology" (above, n. 3); Smocovitis, Unifying Biology (above, n. 3); Vassiliki B. Smocovitis, "Organizing Evolution: Founding the Society for the Study of Evolution", J. Hist. Biol., 27 (1994), 241-309; J. Cain, "Common Problems and Cooperative Solutions: Organizational Activity in Evolutionary Studies", Isis, 84 (1993), 1-25; J. Cain, "Ernst Mayr as Community Architect", Biol. Phil., 9 (1994), 387-427.
25. Smocovitis, "Unifying Biology" (above, n. 3).
26. William B. Provine, "Progress in Evolution and the Meaning of Life", in Evolutionary Progress, ed. M. Nitecki (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 61; Michael R. Dietrich, "Richard Goldschmidt's 'Heresies' and the Evolutionary Synthesis", J. Hist. Biol., 28 (1995): 431-461.
27. William B. Provine, "Progress in Evolution and the Meaning of Life", in Evolutionary Progress, ed. M. Nitecki (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 61; Michael R. Dietrich, "Richard Goldschmidt's 'Heresies' and the Evolutionary Synthesis", J. Hist. Biol., 28 (1995): 431-461.
28. Cain, "Common Problems" (above, n. 10).
29. H. J. Muller, "Redintegration of the Symposium on Genetics, Paleontology, and Evolution", in Genetics, Paleontology and Evolution, ed. Glenn Jepson, G. G. Simpson, and Ernst Mayr (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1949) 421-445, at 422.
30. A detailed account of the debates between Wright and Fisher can be found in William Provine, Sewall Wright and Evolutionary Biology (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1986). See especially chap. 8, 9, 12.
31. John Beatty, "Dobzhansky and Drift: Facts, Values, and Chance in Evolutionary Biology", in The Probabilistic Revolution, Vol. 2, ed. L. Kruger, G. Gigerenzer, and M. Morgan (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1987), 271-311; John Beatty, "Weighing the Risks: Stalemate in the Classical/Balance Controversy", J. Hist. Biol., 20 (1987), 289-319; Richard Lewontin, "Introduction: The Scientific Work of Theodosius Dobzhansky", in Dobzhansky's Genetics of Natural Populations I-XLIII, ed. R. C. Lewontin, J. A. Moore, W. B. Provine, and B. Wallace (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981), 93-115.
32. John Beatty, "Dobzhansky and Drift: Facts, Values, and Chance in Evolutionary Biology", in The Probabilistic Revolution, Vol. 2, ed. L. Kruger, G. Gigerenzer, and M. Morgan (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1987), 271-311; John Beatty, "Weighing the Risks: Stalemate in the Classical/Balance Controversy", J. Hist. Biol., 20 (1987), 289-319; Richard Lewontin, "Introduction: The Scientific Work of Theodosius Dobzhansky", in Dobzhansky's Genetics of Natural Populations I-XLIII, ed. R. C. Lewontin, J. A. Moore, W. B. Provine, and B. Wallace (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981), 93-115.
33. John Beatty, "Dobzhansky and Drift: Facts, Values, and Chance in Evolutionary Biology", in The Probabilistic Revolution, Vol. 2, ed. L. Kruger, G. Gigerenzer, and M. Morgan (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1987), 271-311; John Beatty, "Weighing the Risks: Stalemate in the Classical/Balance Controversy", J. Hist. Biol., 20 (1987), 289-319; Richard Lewontin, "Introduction: The Scientific Work of Theodosius Dobzhansky", in Dobzhansky's Genetics of Natural Populations I-XLIII, ed. R. C. Lewontin, J. A. Moore, W. B. Provine, and B. Wallace (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981), 93-115.
34. Stephen Jay Gould, "The Hardening of the Modern Synthesis", in Dimensions of Darwinism, ed. Marjorie Grene (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 71-93.
35. Pnina Abir-Am, "The Politics of Macromolecules: Molecular Biologists, Biochemists, and Rhetoric", Osiris, 7 (1992), 164-191; Smocovitis, Unifying Biology (above, n. 3), 174-178.
36. Pnina Abir-Am, "The Politics of Macromolecules: Molecular Biologists, Biochemists, and Rhetoric", Osiris, 7 (1992), 164-191; Smocovitis, Unifying Biology (above, n. 3), 174-178.
37. Wilson, Naturalist (above, n. 1), 225.
38. Ibid., 228. Angela Creager describes similar disciplinary tensions at the University of California, Berkeley, in the 1960s between biochemists and self-identified molecular biologists. See Angela Creager, "Wendell Stanley's Dream of a Free-Standing Biochemistry Department at the University of California, Berkeley", J. Hist. Biol., 29 (1996), 331-360.
39. Ibid., 228. Angela Creager describes similar disciplinary tensions at the University of California, Berkeley, in the 1960s between biochemists and self-identified molecular biologists. See Angela Creager, "Wendell Stanley's Dream of a Free-Standing Biochemistry Department at the University of California, Berkeley", J. Hist. Biol., 29 (1996), 331-360.
40. Smocovitis, Unifying Biology (above, n. 3), 1974; Ernst Mayr to Michael Dietrich, personal communication, November 19, 1996.
41. Smocovitis, Unifying Biology (above, n. 3), 1974; Ernst Mayr to Michael Dietrich, personal communication, November 19, 1996.
42. Ernst Mayr, "Where Are We?" Cold Spr. Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol., 24 (1959), 13.
43. See Beatty, "Weighing the Risks" (above, n. 16).
44. Theodosius Dobzhanksy, "Taxonomy, Molecular Biology, and the Peck Order", Evolution, 15 (1961), 263.
45. Florkin, Biochemical Evolution (above, n. 5); Christian Anfinsen, The Molecular Basis of Evolution (New York: Wiley, 1959).
46. Florkin, Biochemical Evolution (above, n. 5); Christian Anfinsen, The Molecular Basis of Evolution (New York: Wiley, 1959).
47. G. H. F. Nuttall, Blood Immunity and Relationship (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1904).
48. A. Boyden, "The Measurement and Significance of Serological Correspondence among Proteins", in Serological Approaches to Studies of Protein Structure and Metabolism, ed. W. Cole (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1954); C. A. Williams and C. T. Wemyss, "Experimental and Evolutionary Significance of Similarities among Serum Protein Antigens of Man and the Lower Primates", Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 94 (1961), 77-92; Morris Goodman, "On the Emergence of Intraspecific Differences in the Protein Antigens of Human Beings", Amer. Nat., 94 (1960), 153-166.
49. A. Boyden, "The Measurement and Significance of Serological Correspondence among Proteins", in Serological Approaches to Studies of Protein Structure and Metabolism, ed. W. Cole (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1954); C. A. Williams and C. T. Wemyss, "Experimental and Evolutionary Significance of Similarities among Serum Protein Antigens of Man and the Lower Primates", Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 94 (1961), 77-92; Morris Goodman, "On the Emergence of Intraspecific Differences in the Protein Antigens of Human Beings", Amer. Nat., 94 (1960), 153-166.
50. A. Boyden, "The Measurement and Significance of Serological Correspondence among Proteins", in Serological Approaches to Studies of Protein Structure and Metabolism, ed. W. Cole (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1954); C. A. Williams and C. T. Wemyss, "Experimental and Evolutionary Significance of Similarities among Serum Protein Antigens of Man and the Lower Primates", Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 94 (1961), 77-92; Morris Goodman, "On the Emergence of Intraspecific Differences in the Protein Antigens of Human Beings", Amer. Nat., 94 (1960), 153-166.
51. The evolution of primates and especially the phylogenetic relationships among apes and humans was a central concern for many molecular evolutionists. Williams and Goodman, as well as Allan Wilson and Vincent Sarich, were central players in the development of molecular anthropology and its main controversies, as we shall see below.
52. E. Margoliash et al., "Amino-Acid Sequence of Horse Heart Cytochrome c: The Complete Amino-Acid Sequence", Nature, 192 (1961), 1125-1127.
53. E. Margoliash, "Primary Structure and Evolution of Cytochrome c", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 50 (1963), 672-679.
54. Emilé Zuckerkandl and Linus Pauling, "Molecular Disease, Evolution, and Genic Heterogeneity", in Horizons in Biochemistry, ed. M. Kasha and B. Pullman (New York: Academic Press, 1962), 189-225.
55. The importance of molecular evolution is noted in a letter from G. G. Simpson to Ernst Mayr, January 6, 1964. Simpson Papers, American Philosophical Society Library, Philadelphia.
56. Zuckerkandl and Pauling, "Molecular Disease", Evolution, and Genic Heterogeneity" (above, n. 3), 200-204.
57. Emilé Zuckerkandl, "Perspectives in Molecular Anthropology", in Classification and Human Evolutions, ed. S. Washburn (Chicago: Aldine, 1963), 254.
58. Emilé Zuckerkandl, "On the Molecular Evolutionary Clock", J. Mol. Evol., 26 (1987), 34-46, see 34.
59. Zuckerkandl and Pauling, "Molecular Disease, Evolution, and Genic Heterogeneity" (above, n. 31), 201.
60. Ibid., 202.
61. Interview with Emilé Zuckerkandl, March 10, 1994, Palo Alto, California. Also, Emilé Zuckerkandl to Michael Dietrich, personal communication, November 23, 1996, 2.
62. Zuckerkandl and Pauling, "Molecular Disease, Evolution, and Genic Heterogeneity" (above, n. 3), 204.
63. Zuckerkandl, "Perspectives in Molecular Anthropology" (above, n. 34), 258.
64. Ibid., 260.
65. "Tertiary protein structure" refers to the three-dimensional folded structure of a molecule. Tertiary structures were recognized to be extremely important for interactions between molecules, including the creation of active sites within enzymes. "Primary protein structure" refers to the linear order of amino acids composing the protein.
66. Zuckerkandl, "Perspectives in Molecular Anthropology" (above, n. 34), 260-261.
67. Ibid., 267.
68. Ibid., 265.
69. Ibid., 266.
70. Emilé Zuckerkandl to Michael Dietrich, personal communication, November 23, 1996.
71. G. G. Simpson to Ernst Mayr, January 6, 1964, Simpson Papers, American Philosophical Society Library, Philadelphia.
72. Ernst Mayr, "The New versus the Classical in Science", Science, 141 (1963), 763.
73. In his account of the "Molecular Wars" at Harvard, E. O. Wilson depicts James Watson, codiscoverer of the structure of DNA, as the epitome of the molecular biologist with an attitude. In his words, Watson was "the Caligula of biology" (Wilson, Naturalist (above, n. 1), 219).
74. Theodosius Dobzhansky, "Evolutionary and Population Genetics", Science, 142 (1963), 1131-1135.
75. Ibid., 1131.
76. Ibid., 1134.
77. Ibid., 1135.
78. Interview with Thomas Jukes, July 28, 1992, Berkeley. The Conference on Evolving Genes and Proteins was held at the Institute of Microbiology at Rutgers on September 17-18, 1964; the Colloquium on the Evolution of Blood Proteins was held in Bruges, Belgium, during the summer of 1964. The conference proceedings were published as Evolving Genes and Proteins, ed. V. Broyson and H. Vogel (New York: Academic Press, 1965); the colloquium proceedings, as Protides of the Biological Fluids, ed. H. Peeters (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1964).
79. Interview with Thomas Jukes, July 28, 1992, Berkeley. The Conference on Evolving Genes and Proteins was held at the Institute of Microbiology at Rutgers on September 17-18, 1964; the Colloquium on the Evolution of Blood Proteins was held in Bruges, Belgium, during the summer of 1964. The conference proceedings were published as Evolving Genes and Proteins, ed. V. Broyson and H. Vogel (New York: Academic Press, 1965); the colloquium proceedings, as Protides of the Biological Fluids, ed. H. Peeters (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1964).
80. George G. Simspons's comments from the 1964 colloquium in Bruges are published as "Organisms and Molecules in Evolution", Science, 146 (1964), 1535-1538, and in Protides of the Biological Fluids (above, n. 55), 29-35. Ernst Mayr's comments from the 1964 conference at Rutgers are published in the discussion sections of Evolving Genes and Proteins (above, n. 55).
81. George G. Simspons's comments from the 1964 colloquium in Bruges are published as "Organisms and Molecules in Evolution", Science, 146 (1964), 1535-1538, and in Protides of the Biological Fluids (above, n. 55), 29-35. Ernst Mayr's comments from the 1964 conference at Rutgers are published in the discussion sections of Evolving Genes and Proteins (above, n. 55).
82. George G. Simspons's comments from the 1964 colloquium in Bruges are published as "Organisms and Molecules in Evolution", Science, 146 (1964), 1535-1538, and in Protides of the Biological Fluids (above, n. 55), 29-35. Ernst Mayr's comments from the 1964 conference at Rutgers are published in the discussion sections of Evolving Genes and Proteins (above, n. 55).
83. G. G. Simpson to Ernst Mayr, April 27, 1964. Simpson Papers, American Philosophical Society Library, Philadelphia.
84. Simpson, "Organisms and Molecules in Evolutions" (above, n. 56), 1535.
85. Ibid., 1536-1537.
86. Ibid., 1536.
87. Ibid., 1535.
88. Emilé Zuckerkandl and Linus Pauling, "Evolutionary Divergence and Convergence in Proteins", in Evolving Genes and Proteins, ed. V. Bryson and H. Vogel (New York: Academic Press, 1965), 97-166.
89. Ibid., 97.
90. Ibid., 98.
91. Emilé Zuckerkandl to Michael Dietrich, personal communication, November 23, 1996.
92. Zuckerkandl and Pauling, "Evolutionary Divergence and Convergence in Proteins" (above, n. 62), 102.
93. For more on the early emphasis on information in molecular biology, see Lily Kay, "Who Wrote the Book of Life? Information and the Transformation of Molecular Biology", Sci. Context, 8 (1995), 609-634, originally published in Experimentalsysteme in den Biologische-Medizinischen Wissenschaften: Objekt, differenzen, Konjunkturen, ed. Michael Hagner, Hans-Jörg Rheinberger, and Bettina Wahrig-Schmidt (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1994), 151-179; Evelyn Fox Keller, Refiguring Life (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995); Soraya De Chadarevian, "Sequences, Conformation, Information: Biochemists and Molecular Biologists in the 1950s", J. Hist. Biol., 29 (1996), 361-386.
94. For more on the early emphasis on information in molecular biology, see Lily Kay, "Who Wrote the Book of Life? Information and the Transformation of Molecular Biology", Sci. Context, 8 (1995), 609-634, originally published in Experimentalsysteme in den Biologische-Medizinischen Wissenschaften: Objekt, differenzen, Konjunkturen, ed. Michael Hagner, Hans-Jörg Rheinberger, and Bettina Wahrig-Schmidt (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1994), 151-179; Evelyn Fox Keller, Refiguring Life (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995); Soraya De Chadarevian, "Sequences, Conformation, Information: Biochemists and Molecular Biologists in the 1950s", J. Hist. Biol., 29 (1996), 361-386.
95. For more on the early emphasis on information in molecular biology, see Lily Kay, "Who Wrote the Book of Life? Information and the Transformation of Molecular Biology", Sci. Context, 8 (1995), 609-634, originally published in Experimentalsysteme in den Biologische-Medizinischen Wissenschaften: Objekt, differenzen, Konjunkturen, ed. Michael Hagner, Hans-Jörg Rheinberger, and Bettina Wahrig-Schmidt (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1994), 151-179; Evelyn Fox Keller, Refiguring Life (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995); Soraya De Chadarevian, "Sequences, Conformation, Information: Biochemists and Molecular Biologists in the 1950s", J. Hist. Biol., 29 (1996), 361-386.
96. For more on the early emphasis on information in molecular biology, see Lily Kay, "Who Wrote the Book of Life? Information and the Transformation of Molecular Biology", Sci. Context, 8 (1995), 609-634, originally published in Experimentalsysteme in den Biologische-Medizinischen Wissenschaften: Objekt, differenzen, Konjunkturen, ed. Michael Hagner, Hans-Jörg Rheinberger, and Bettina Wahrig-Schmidt (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1994), 151-179; Evelyn Fox Keller, Refiguring Life (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995); Soraya De Chadarevian, "Sequences, Conformation, Information: Biochemists and Molecular Biologists in the 1950s", J. Hist. Biol., 29 (1996), 361-386.
97. Zuckerkandl and Pauling, "Evolutionary Divergence and Convergence in Proteins" (above, n. 62), 148.
98. Ibid., 137.
99. Ibid., 139.
100. Mayr, "Discussion of Part III", Evolving Genes and Proteins, ed. V. Bryson and H. Vogel, (New York: Academic Press, 1965), 197-198. Simpson was not present at the Rutgers meeting.
101. E. Margoliash, "Discussion of Part III", in Evolving Genes and Proteins, ed. V. Bryson and H. Vogel (New York: Academic Press, 1965), 199.
102. For an excellent discussion of the history of this distinction, see John Beatty, "The Proximate/Ultimate Distinction in the Multiple Careers of Ernst Mayr", Biol. Phil., 9 (1994), 333-356.
103. Ernst Mayr, "Cause and Effect in Biology", Science, 134 (1961), 1501-6, 150 at 1503.
104. Ibid., 1502.
105. Beatty, "The Proximate/Ultimate Distinction" (above, n. 73), 348-349.
106. Theodosius Dobzhansky, "Are Naturalists Old Fashioned?" Amer. Nat., 100 (1966), 541-550, at 544.
107. Ibid.
108. G. G. Simpson, This View of Life (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1964), 105, cited in Dobzhansky, "Are Naturalists Old Fashioned?" (above, n. 77), 544.
109. G. G. Simpson, This View of Life (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1964), 105, cited in Dobzhansky, "Are Naturalists Old Fashioned?" (above, n. 77), 544.
110. Dobzhanksy, "Are Naturalists Old Fashioned?" (above, n. 77), 544. Simpson's essay on reduction and composition develops this distinction in terms of the types of questions asked. Simpson, This View of Life (above, n. 77), 108-120.
111. Dobzhanksy, "Are Naturalists Old Fashioned?" (above, n. 77), 544. Simpson's essay on reduction and composition develops this distinction in terms of the types of questions asked. Simpson, This View of Life (above, n. 77), 108-120.
112. Dobzhansky, "Biology, Molecular and Organismic" (above, n. 2), 449.
113. Dobzhansky, "Are Naturalists Old Fashioned?" (above, n. 77), 546.
114. Dobzhansky, "Biology, Molecular and Organismic" (above, n. 2), 449.
115. Motoo Kimur, "Evolutionary Rate at the Molecular Level", Nature, 217 (1968), 624-626; Jack King and Thomas Jukes, "Non-Darwinian Evolution", Science, 164 (1969), 788-798.
116. Motoo Kimur, "Evolutionary Rate at the Molecular Level", Nature, 217 (1968), 624-626; Jack King and Thomas Jukes, "Non-Darwinian Evolution", Science, 164 (1969), 788-798.
117. Kimura, "Evolutionary Rate at the Molecular Level" (above, n. 84), 624-626. Random drift can be understood as the random fluctuations of allele frequencies from generation to generation. It occurs in all finite populations but is more extensive in smaller populations. See Douglas Futuyma, Evolutionary Biology, 2d ed. (Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates, 1986), 130.
118. Kimura, "Evolutionary Rate at the Molecular Level" (above, n. 84), 624-626. Random drift can be understood as the random fluctuations of allele frequencies from generation to generation. It occurs in all finite populations but is more extensive in smaller populations. See Douglas Futuyma, Evolutionary Biology, 2d ed. (Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates, 1986), 130.
119. Michael R. Dietrich, "The Origins of the Neutral Theory of Molecular Evolution", J. Hist. Biol., 27 (1994), 21-59.
120. William Provine, "The Neutral Theory of Molecular Evolution in Historical Perspective", in Population Biology of Genes and Molecules, ed. N. Takahata and J. Crow (Tokyo: Baifukan, 1990), 17-31, at 26.
121. Thomas Jukes, "Early Developments of the Neutral Theory", Perspect. Biol. Med., 34 (1991), 473-485, at 477.
122. Emilé Zuckerkandl and Linus Pauling, "Evolutionary Divergence and Convergence in Proteins" (above, n. 62). The following papers also appear in Evolving Genes and Proteins, ed. V. Bryson and H. Vogel (New York: Academic Press, 1965); J. Buettner-Janusch and R. Hill, "Evolution of Hemoglobin in Primates", 167-181; E. Margoliash and E. Smith, "Structural and Functional Aspects of Cytochrome c in Relation to Evolution", 221-242; N. Kaplan, "Evolution of Dehydrogenases", 243-277.
123. Emilé Zuckerkandl and Linus Pauling, "Evolutionary Divergence and Convergence in Proteins" (above, n. 62). The following papers also appear in Evolving Genes and Proteins, ed. V. Bryson and H. Vogel (New York: Academic Press, 1965); J. Buettner-Janusch and R. Hill, "Evolution of Hemoglobin in Primates", 167-181; E. Margoliash and E. Smith, "Structural and Functional Aspects of Cytochrome c in Relation to Evolution", 221-242; N. Kaplan, "Evolution of Dehydrogenases", 243-277.
124. Emilé Zuckerkandl and Linus Pauling, "Evolutionary Divergence and Convergence in Proteins" (above, n. 62). The following papers also appear in Evolving Genes and Proteins, ed. V. Bryson and H. Vogel (New York: Academic Press, 1965); J. Buettner-Janusch and R. Hill, "Evolution of Hemoglobin in Primates", 167-181; E. Margoliash and E. Smith, "Structural and Functional Aspects of Cytochrome c in Relation to Evolution", 221-242; N. Kaplan, "Evolution of Dehydrogenases", 243-277.
125. Emilé Zuckerkandl and Linus Pauling, "Evolutionary Divergence and Convergence in Proteins" (above, n. 62). The following papers also appear in Evolving Genes and Proteins, ed. V. Bryson and H. Vogel (New York: Academic Press, 1965); J. Buettner-Janusch and R. Hill, "Evolution of Hemoglobin in Primates", 167-181; E. Margoliash and E. Smith, "Structural and Functional Aspects of Cytochrome c in Relation to Evolution", 221-242; N. Kaplan, "Evolution of Dehydrogenases", 243-277.
126. Emilé Zuckerkandl and Linus Pauling, "Evolutionary Divergence and Convergence in Proteins" (above, n. 62). The following papers also appear in Evolving Genes and Proteins, ed. V. Bryson and H. Vogel (New York: Academic Press, 1965); J. Buettner-Janusch and R. Hill, "Evolution of Hemoglobin in Primates", 167-181; E. Margoliash and E. Smith, "Structural and Functional Aspects of Cytochrome c in Relation to Evolution", 221-242; N. Kaplan, "Evolution of Dehydrogenases", 243-277.
127. The name stuck to the hypothesis until the early 1970s when it was redubbed the neutral theory of molecular evolution.
128. Provine, "The Neutral Theory of Molecular Evolution" (above, n. 87), 28.
129. Letter from Jack King to Theodosius Dobzhansky, June 11, 1970. Dobzhansky Papers, American Philosophical Society Library, Philadelphia. Thomas Jukes's recollections of these events are found in his "Early Developments of the Neutral Theory" (above, n. 88).
130. Thomas Jukes, Moleculars and Evolution (New York: Columbia University Press, 1966).
131. King and Jukes, "Non-Darwinian Evolution" (above, n. 84), 788.
132. James Crow, "Motoo Kimura: An Appreciation", in Population Genetics and Molecular Evolution, ed. T. Ohta and K. Aoki (Tokyo: Japan Scientific Societies Press, 1985), 1.
133. G. G. Simpson, Concession to the Improbable: An Unconventional Autobiolography (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1978), 269.
134. Ernst Mayr to Motoo Kimura, July 16, 1969. Quoted in Provine, "The Neutral Theory of Molecular Evolution" (above, n. 87), 25-26.
135. King and Jukes, "Non-Darwinian Evolution" (above, n. 84), 796.
136. Bradley Scheer, "The Uses of Comparative Physiology", in Taxonomic Biochemistry and Serology, ed. C. Leone (New York: Ronald Press, 1964), pp. 101-117. Quoted in Allan Wilson to Leonard Kirschner, July 27, 1965, AWP.
137. Leonard Kirschner to Allan Wilson, July 20, 1965, AWP.
138. Allan Wilson to Leonard Kirschner, July 27, 1965, AWP.
139. Angela Creager's analysis of the history of the departments of biochemistry and molecular biology at Berkeley raises important questions about Wilson's position as he began to create a strong connection between biochemistry and physical anthropology at Berkeley. A more detailed institutional study of Wilson's laboratory group will have to wait for the future, however. See Creager, "Wendell Stanley" (above, n. 20).
140. Vincent Sarich and Allan Wilson, "Quantitative Immunochemisty and the Evolution of Primate Albumins: Micro-Complement Fixation", Science, 154 (1966), 1563-1566.
141. Vincent Sarich and Allan Wilson, "Immunological Time Scale for Hominid Evolution", Science, 158 (1967), 1200-1203, at 1201.
142. Morris Goodman, "On the Emergence of Intraspecific Differences in the Protein Antigens of Human Beings", Amer. Nat., 94 (1960), 153.
143. Morris Goodman, "Man's Place in the Phylogeny of Primates as Reflected in Serum Proteins", in Classification and Human Evolution, ed. S. Washburn (Chicago: Aldine, 1963), 204-234.
144. Another part of the dispute here concerned the rise of cladistics in systematics. Mayr and Simpson were opposed to cladistic reasoning, while molecular data was noted for ease with which it lent itself to the efforts of numerical taxonomists and cladists. Morris Goodman was an advocate of molecular cladistics. See Morris Goodman, "Epilogue: A Personal Account of the Origins of a New Paradigm", Mol. Phylogenet. Evol., 5 (1996), 269-285, at 272-276.
145. Ibid., 270.
146. Ibid.
147. Vincent Sarich and Allan Wilson, "Rates of Albumin Evolution in Primates", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 58 (1967), 142-148; Allan Wilson and Vincent Sarich, "A Molecular Time Scale for Human Evolution", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 63 (1969), 1088-1093.
148. Vincent Sarich and Allan Wilson, "Rates of Albumin Evolution in Primates", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 58 (1967), 142-148; Allan Wilson and Vincent Sarich, "A Molecular Time Scale for Human Evolution", Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 63 (1969), 1088-1093.
149. Wilson, "Protein Structure and the Role of Evolution" (above, n. 7), 4; Wilson, Seminar Notes (above, n. 7); Wilson, "Albumin Evolution in Frogs" (above, n. 7), 3129; Wilson, "Selectively Neutral Changes in Protein Evolution" (above, n. 7), 18; Allan Wilson, "Is Protein Evolution at the Basis of Organismal Evolution?" Biosystematists Group, February 11, 1975, Berkeley, Calif. AWP.
150. Wilson, "Protein Structure and the Role of Evolution" (above, n. 7), 4; Wilson, Seminar Notes (above, n. 7); Wilson, "Albumin Evolution in Frogs" (above, n. 7), 3129; Wilson, "Selectively Neutral Changes in Protein Evolution" (above, n. 7), 18; Allan Wilson, "Is Protein Evolution at the Basis of Organismal Evolution?" Biosystematists Group, February 11, 1975, Berkeley, Calif. AWP.
151. Wilson, "Protein Structure and the Role of Evolution" (above, n. 7), 4; Wilson, Seminar Notes (above, n. 7); Wilson, "Albumin Evolution in Frogs" (above, n. 7), 3129; Wilson, "Selectively Neutral Changes in Protein Evolution" (above, n. 7), 18; Allan Wilson, "Is Protein Evolution at the Basis of Organismal Evolution?" Biosystematists Group, February 11, 1975, Berkeley, Calif. AWP.
152. Wilson, "Protein Structure and the Role of Evolution" (above, n. 7), 4; Wilson, Seminar Notes (above, n. 7); Wilson, "Albumin Evolution in Frogs" (above, n. 7), 3129; Wilson, "Selectively Neutral Changes in Protein Evolution" (above, n. 7), 18; Allan Wilson, "Is Protein Evolution at the Basis of Organismal Evolution?" Biosystematists Group, February 11, 1975, Berkeley, Calif. AWP.
153. Wilson, "Protein Structure and the Role of Evolution" (above, n. 7), 4; Wilson, Seminar Notes (above, n. 7); Wilson, "Albumin Evolution in Frogs" (above, n. 7), 3129; Wilson, "Selectively Neutral Changes in Protein Evolution" (above, n. 7), 18; Allan Wilson, "Is Protein Evolution at the Basis of Organismal Evolution?" Biosystematists Group, February 11, 1975, Berkeley, Calif. AWP.
154. Wilson, "Albumin Evolution in Frogs" (above, n. 7), 3129.
155. Wilson, Maxson, and Sarich, "Two Types of Molecular Evolution" (above, n. 7); Wilson, Sarich, and Maxson, "The Importance of Gene Rearrangement in Evolution" (above, n. 7). See also King and Wilson, "Evolution at Two Levels in Humans and Chimpanzees" (above, n. 7); Zuckerkandl, "Perspectives in Molecular Anthropology" (above, n. 34), 243 ; Zuckerkandl and Pauling, "Evolutionary Divergence and Convergence in Proteins" (above, n. 62), 99-100.
156. Wilson, Maxson, and Sarich, "Two Types of Molecular Evolution" (above, n. 7); Wilson, Sarich, and Maxson, "The Importance of Gene Rearrangement in Evolution" (above, n. 7). See also King and Wilson, "Evolution at Two Levels in Humans and Chimpanzees" (above, n. 7); Zuckerkandl, "Perspectives in Molecular Anthropology" (above, n. 34), 243 ; Zuckerkandl and Pauling, "Evolutionary Divergence and Convergence in Proteins" (above, n. 62), 99-100.
157. Wilson, Maxson, and Sarich, "Two Types of Molecular Evolution" (above, n. 7); Wilson, Sarich, and Maxson, "The Importance of Gene Rearrangement in Evolution" (above, n. 7). See also King and Wilson, "Evolution at Two Levels in Humans and Chimpanzees" (above, n. 7); Zuckerkandl, "Perspectives in Molecular Anthropology" (above, n. 34), 243 ; Zuckerkandl and Pauling, "Evolutionary Divergence and Convergence in Proteins" (above, n. 62), 99-100.
158. Wilson, Maxson, and Sarich, "Two Types of Molecular Evolution" (above, n. 7); Wilson, Sarich, and Maxson, "The Importance of Gene Rearrangement in Evolution" (above, n. 7). See also King and Wilson, "Evolution at Two Levels in Humans and Chimpanzees" (above, n. 7); Zuckerkandl, "Perspectives in Molecular Anthropology" (above, n. 34), 243 ; Zuckerkandl and Pauling, "Evolutionary Divergence and Convergence in Proteins" (above, n. 62), 99-100.
159. Wilson, Maxson, and Sarich, "Two Types of Molecular Evolution" (above, n. 7); Wilson, Sarich, and Maxson, "The Importance of Gene Rearrangement in Evolution" (above, n. 7). See also King and Wilson, "Evolution at Two Levels in Humans and Chimpanzees" (above, n. 7); Zuckerkandl, "Perspectives in Molecular Anthropology" (above, n. 34), 243 ; Zuckerkandl and Pauling, "Evolutionary Divergence and Convergence in Proteins" (above, n. 62), 99-100.
160. Motoo Kimura, "Natural Selection and Neutral Evolution", in What Darwin Began, ed. L. R. Godfrey (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1985), 73-93.
161. Masatoshi Nei, Molecular Evolutionary Genetics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), 414-431.