Why do hypertensive patients of African ancestry respond better to calcium blockers and diuretics than to ACE inhibitors and β-adrenergic blockers? A systematic review

BMC Medicine

Volumn 11, Issue 1, 2013, Pages

  Brewster, Lizzy M ^a   Seedat, Yackoob K ^b  

^a ACADEMIC MEDICAL CENTER   (Netherlands)

^b University of KwaZulu Natal Faculty of Health Sciences   (South Africa)

Author keywords

African ancestry; Antihypertensive therapy; Creatine kinase; Nitric oxide; Systematic review

Indexed keywords

ALPHA 1 ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; AMLODIPINE; ATENOLOL; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CHLORTALIDONE; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DIURETIC AGENT; ENALAPRIL; FUROSEMIDE; GLUCOSE; HYDROCHLOROTHIAZIDE; ISRADIPINE; METOPROLOL; NIFEDIPINE; PLACEBO; PROPRANOLOL; RAMIPRIL; SPIRONOLACTONE; VERAPAMIL;

ANGIONEUROTIC EDEMA; ANKLE EDEMA; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE ACTIVITY; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE THERAPY; ARTICLE; BLOOD PRESSURE REGULATION; DIURETIC THERAPY; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG CLEARANCE; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG EXCRETION; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG INDUCED HEADACHE; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG RESPONSE; DRUG SAFETY; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; GENETIC POLYMORPHISM; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; GLUCOSE INTOLERANCE; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; METABOLIC DISORDER; MONOTHERAPY; NEGRO; PLASMA CONCENTRATION-TIME CURVE; SIDE EFFECT; SODIUM INTAKE; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE;

ADRENERGIC BETA-ANTAGONISTS; AFRICAN CONTINENTAL ANCESTRY GROUP; ANGIOTENSIN-CONVERTING ENZYME INHIBITORS; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENTS; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKERS; DIURETICS; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 84878257047     PISSN: None     EISSN: 17417015     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1186/1741-7015-11-141     Document Type: Article

References (102)

1. Ford ES. Trends in mortality from all causes and cardiovascular disease among hypertensive and nonhypertensive adults in the United States. Circulation 2011, 123:1737-1744. 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.005645, 21518989.
2. Opie LH, Seedat YK. Hypertension in sub-Saharan African populations. Circulation 2005, 112:3562-3568. 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.539569, 16330697.
3. Brewster LM, van Montfrans GA, Kleijnen J. Systematic review: antihypertensive drug therapy in black patients. Ann Intern Med 2004, 141:614-627. 10.7326/0003-4819-141-8-200410190-00009, 15492341.
4. Jolly S, Vittinghoff E, Chattopadhyay A, Bibbins-Domingo K. Higher cardiovascular disease prevalence and mortality among younger blacks compared to whites. Am J Med 2010, 123:811-818. 10.1016/j.amjmed.2010.04.020, 20800150.
5. Flack JM, Sica DA, Bakris G, Brown AL, Ferdinand KC, Grimm RH, Hall WD, Jones WE, Kountz DS, Lea JP, Nasser S, Nesbitt SD, Saunders E, Scisney-Matlock M, Jamerson KA. Management of high blood pressure in Blacks: an update of the International Society on Hypertension in Blacks consensus statement. Hypertension 2010, 56:780-800. 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.110.152892, 20921433.
6. Johnson JA. Ethnic differences in cardiovascular drug response: potential contribution of pharmacogenetics. Circulation 2008, 118:1383-1393. 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.704023, 2730023, 18809808.
7. Sehgal AR. Overlap between whites and blacks in response to antihypertensive drugs. Hypertension 2004, 43:566-572. 10.1161/01.HYP.0000118019.28487.9c, 14757779.
8. Jamerson KA. Rationale for angiotensin II receptor blockers in patients with low-renin hypertension. Am J Kidney Dis 2000, 36:S24-S30.
9. Schwartz GL, Turner ST. Pharmacogenetics of antihypertensive drug responses. Am J Pharmacogenomics 2004, 4:151-160. 10.2165/00129785-200404030-00002, 15174896.
10. Kalinowski L, Dobrucki IT, Malinski T. Race-specific differences in endothelial function: predisposition of African Americans to vascular diseases. Circulation 2004, 109:2511-2517. 10.1161/01.CIR.0000129087.81352.7A, 15159296.
11. Brewster LM, Clark JF, van Montfrans GA. Is greater tissue activity of creatine kinase the genetic factor increasing hypertension risk in black people of sub-Saharan African descent?. J Hypertens 2000, 18:1537-1544. 10.1097/00004872-200018110-00002, 11081764.
12. Brewster LM, Mairuhu G, Bindraban NR, Koopmans RP, Clark JF, van Montfrans GA. Creatine kinase activity is associated with blood pressure. Circulation 2006, 114:2034-2039. 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.584490, 17075013.
13. Rodgers M, Arai L, Popay J, Britten N, Roberts H, Petticrew M, Sowden A. Testing methodological guidance on the conduct of narrative synthesis in systematic reviews: effectiveness of interventions to promote smoke alarm ownership and function. Evaluation 2009, 15:49-73.
14. Lee J, Aziz H, Liu L, Lipkowitz M, O'Connor DT, Richard E, Brophy V, Wassel CL, Blantz R, Bhatnagar V. β(1)-adrenergic receptor polymorphisms and response to β-blockade in the African-American study of kidney disease and hypertension (AASK). Am J Hypertens 2011, 24:694-700. 10.1038/ajh.2011.39, 21415838.
15. Turner ST, Schwartz GL, Chapman AB, Beitelshees AL, Gums JG, Cooper-DeHoff RM, Boerwinkle E, Johnson JA, Bailey KR. Plasma renin activity predicts blood pressure responses to beta-blocker and thiazide diuretic as monotherapy and add-on therapy for hypertension. Am J Hypertens 2010, 23:1014-1022. 10.1038/ajh.2010.98, 2941699, 20725057.
16. Merchant N, Searles CD, Pandian A, Rahman ST, Ferdinand KC, Umpierrez GE, Khan BV. Nebivolol in high-risk, obese African Americans with stage 1 hypertension: effects on blood pressure, vascular compliance, and endothelial function. J Clin Hypertens 2009, 11:720-725.
17. Bhatnagar V, Garcia EP, O'Connor DT, Brophy VH, Alcaraz J, Richard E, Bakris GL, Middleton JP, Norris KC, Wright J, Hiremath L, Contreras G, Appel LJ, Lipkowitz MS. CYP3A4 and CYP3A5 polymorphisms and blood pressure response to amlodipine among African-American men and women with early hypertensive renal disease. Am J Nephrol 2010, 31:95-103. 10.1159/000258688, 2853591, 19907160.
18. Kurnik D, Cunningham AJ, Sofowora GG, Kohli U, Li C, Friedman EA, Muszkat M, Menon UB, Wood AJ, Stein CM. GRK5 Gln41Leu polymorphism is not associated with sensitivity to beta(1)-adrenergic blockade in humans. Pharmacogenomics 2009, 10:1581-1587. 10.2217/pgs.09.92, 2820245, 19842931.
19. Bhatnagar V, O'Connor DT, Brophy VH, Schork NJ, Richard E, Salem RM, Nievergelt CM, Bakris GL, Middleton JP, Norris KC, Wright J, Hiremath L, Contreras G, Appel LJ, Lipkowitz MS. G-protein-coupled receptor kinase 4 polymorphisms and blood pressure response to metoprolol among African Americans: sex-specificity and interactions. Am J Hypertens 2009, 22:332-338. 10.1038/ajh.2008.341, 2715837, 19119263.
20. Kurnik D, Li C, Sofowora GG, Friedman EA, Muszkat M, Xie HG, Harris PA, Williams SM, Nair UB, Wood AJ, Stein CM. Beta-1-adrenoceptor genetic variants and ethnicity independently affect response to beta-blockade. Pharmacogenet Genomics 2008, 18:895-902. 10.1097/FPC.0b013e328309733f, 2757009, 18794726.
21. Turner ST, Bailey KR, Fridley BL, Chapman AB, Schwartz GL, Chai HS, Sicotte H, Kocher JP, Rodin AS, Boerwinkle E. Genomic association analysis suggests chromosome 12 locus influencing antihypertensive response to thiazide diuretic. Hypertension 2008, 52:359-365. 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.107.104273, 2692710, 18591461.
22. Canzanello VJ, Baranco-Pryor E, Rahbari-Oskoui F, Schwartz GL, Boerwinkle E, Turner ST, Chapman AB. Predictors of blood pressure response to the angiotensin receptor blocker candesartan in essential hypertension. Am J Hypertens 2008, 21:61-66. 10.1038/ajh.2007.24, 18091745.
23. Bhatnagar V, O'Connor DT, Schork NJ, Salem RM, Nievergelt CM, Rana BK, Smith DW, Bakris GL, Middleton JP, Norris KC, Wright JT, Cheek D, Hiremath L, Contreras G, Appel LJ, Lipkowitz MS. Angiotensin-converting enzyme gene polymorphism predicts the time-course of blood pressure response to angiotensin converting enzyme inhibition in the AASK trial. J Hypertens 2007, 25:2082-2092. 10.1097/HJH.0b013e3282b9720e, 2792638, 17885551.
24. Langaee TY, Gong Y, Yarandi HN, Katz DA, Cooper-DeHoff RM, Pepine CJ, Johnson JA. Association of CYP3A5 polymorphisms with hypertension and antihypertensive response to verapamil. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2007, 81:386-391. 10.1038/sj.clpt.6100090, 17339868.
25. Davis BR, Arnett DK, Boerwinkle E, Ford CE, Leiendecker-Foster C, Miller MB, Black H, Eckfeldt JH. Antihypertensive therapy, the alpha-adducin polymorphism, and cardiovascular disease in high-risk hypertensive persons: the Genetics of Hypertension-Associated Treatment Study. Pharmacogenomics J 2007, 7:112-122. 10.1038/sj.tpj.6500395, 16702981.
26. Woodiwiss AJ, Nkeh B, Samani NJ, Badenhorst D, Maseko M, Tiago AD, Candy GP, Libhaber E, Sareli P, Brooksbank R, Norton GR. Functional variants of the angiotensinogen gene determine antihypertensive responses to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors in subjects of African origin. J Hypertens 2006, 24:1057-1064. 10.1097/01.hjh.0000226195.59428.57, 16685205.
27. Mason RP, Kalinowski L, Jacob RF, Jacoby AM, Malinski T. Nebivolol reduces nitroxidative stress and restores nitric oxide bioavailability in endothelium of black Americans. Circulation 2005, 112:3795-3801. 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.556233, 16330685.
28. Arnett DK, Davis BR, Ford CE, Boerwinkle E, Leiendecker-Foster C, Miller MB, Black H, Eckfeldt JH. Pharmacogenetic association of the angiotensin-converting enzyme insertion/deletion polymorphism on blood pressure and cardiovascular risk in relation to antihypertensive treatment: the Genetics of Hypertension-Associated Treatment (GenHAT) study. Circulation 2005, 111:3374-3383. 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.104.504639, 15967849.
29. Grim CE, Cowley AW, Hamet P, Gaudet D, Kaldunski ML, Kotchen JM, Krishnaswami S, Pausova Z, Roman R, Tremblay J, Kotchen TA. Hyperaldosteronism and hypertension: ethnic differences. Hypertension 2005, 45:766-772. 10.1161/01.HYP.0000154364.00763.d5, 15699471.
30. Frazier L, Turner ST, Schwartz GL, Chapman AB, Boerwinkle E. Multilocus effects of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system genes on blood pressure response to a thiazide diuretic. Pharmacogenomics J 2004, 4:17-23. 10.1038/sj.tpj.6500215, 14735111.
31. Kahn DF, Duffy SJ, Tomasian D, Holbrook M, Rescorl L, Russell J, Gokce N, Loscalzo J, Vita JA. Effects of black race on forearm resistance vessel function. Hypertension 2002, 40:195-201. 10.1161/01.HYP.0000024571.69634.ED, 12154113.
32. Turner ST, Schwartz GL, Chapman AB, Boerwinkle E. C825T polymorphism of the G protein beta(3)-subunit and antihypertensive response to a thiazide diuretic. Hypertension 2001, 37:739-743. 10.1161/01.HYP.37.2.739, 11230366.
33. Ripley E, King K, Sica DA. Racial differences in response to acute dosing with hydrochlorothiazide. Am J Hypertens 2000, 13:157-164. 10.1016/S0895-7061(99)00168-5, 10701815.
34. Damasceno A, Santos A, Pestana M, Serrão P, Caupers P, Soares-da-Silva P, Polónia J. Acute hypotensive, natriuretic, and hormonal effects of nifedipine in salt-sensitive and salt-resistant black normotensive and hypertensive subjects. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1999, 34:346-353. 10.1097/00005344-199909000-00005, 10470991.
35. He J, Klag MJ, Appel LJ, Charleston J, Whelton PK. The renin-angiotensin system and blood pressure: differences between blacks and whites. Am J Hypertens 1999, 12:555-562. 10.1016/S0895-7061(99)00030-8, 10371364.
36. Jones DS, Andrawis NS, Abernethy DR. Impaired endothelial-dependent forearm vascular relaxation in black Americans. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1999, 65:408-412. 10.1016/S0009-9236(99)70135-9, 10223778.
37. Cardillo C, Kilcoyne CM, Cannon RO, Panza JA. Attenuation of cyclic nucleotide-mediated smooth muscle relaxation in blacks as a cause of racial differences in vasodilator function. Circulation 1999, 99:90-95. 10.1161/01.CIR.99.1.90, 9884384.
38. Preston RA, Materson BJ, Reda DJ, Williams DW, Hamburger RJ, Cushman WC, Anderson RJ. Age-race subgroup compared with renin profile as predictors of blood pressure response to antihypertensive therapy. JAMA 1998, 280:1168-1172. 10.1001/jama.280.13.1168, 9777817.
39. Cardillo C, Kilcoyne CM, Cannon RO, Panza JA. Racial differences in nitric oxide-mediated vasodilator response to mental stress in the forearm circulation. Hypertension 1998, 31:1235-1239. 10.1161/01.HYP.31.6.1235, 9622135.
40. Weir MR, Saunders E. Renin status does not predict the anti-hypertensive response to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition in African-Americans. J Hum Hypertens 1998, 12:189-194. 10.1038/sj.jhh.1000578, 9579769.
41. Weir MR, Chrysant SG, McCarron DA, Canossa-Terris M, Cohen JD, Gunter PA, Lewin AJ, Mennella RF, Kirkegaard LW, Hamilton JH, Weinberger MH, Weder AB. Influence of race and dietary salt on the antihypertensive efficacy of an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or a calcium channel antagonist in salt-sensitive hypertensives. Hypertension 1998, 31:1088-1096. 10.1161/01.HYP.31.5.1088, 9576119.
42. Stein CM, Lang CC, Nelson R, Brown M, Wood AJ. Vasodilation in black Americans: attenuated nitric oxide-mediated responses. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1997, 62:436-443. 10.1016/S0009-9236(97)90122-3, 9357395.
43. Weir MR, Hall PS, Behrens MT, Flack JM. Salt and blood pressure responses to calcium antagonism in hypertensive patients. Hypertension 1997, 30:422-427. 10.1161/01.HYP.30.3.422, 9314427.
44. Sowinski KM, Lima JJ, Burlew BS, Massie JD, Johnson JA. Racial differences in propranolol enantiomer kinetics following simultaneous i.v. and oral administration. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1996, 42:339-346. 2042685, 8877025.
45. Johnson JA, Burlew BS. Metoprolol metabolism via cytochrome P4502D6 in ethnic populations. Drug Metab Dispos 1996, 24:350-355.
46. Sowunmi A, Rashid TJ, Akinyinka OO, Renwick AG. Ethnic differences in nifedipine kinetics: comparisons between Nigerians, Caucasians and South Asians. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1995, 40:489-493. 1365197, 8703655.
47. Weir MR, Gray JM, Paster R, Saunders E. Differing mechanisms of action of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition in black and white hypertensive patients. Hypertension 1995, 26:124-130. 10.1161/01.HYP.26.1.124, 7607715.
48. Johnson JA, Akers WS, Miller ST, Applegate WB. Lymphocyte beta 2-receptor activity, metoprolol kinetics, and response to metoprolol in hypertensive black men. Pharmacotherapy 1995, 15:150-157.
49. Johnson JA, Burlew BS, Stiles RN. Racial differences in beta-adrenoceptor-mediated responsiveness. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1995, 25:90-96. 10.1097/00005344-199501000-00015, 7723360.
50. Cappuccio FP, Markandu ND, Singer DR, MacGregor GA. Amlodipine and lisinopril in combination for the treatment of essential hypertension: efficacy and predictors of response. J Hypertens 1993, 11:839-847. 10.1097/00004872-199308000-00011, 8228208.
51. Johnson JA. Racial differences in lymphocyte beta-receptor sensitivity to propranolol. Life Sci 1993, 53:297-304. 10.1016/0024-3205(93)90748-R, 8392129.
52. Johnson JA, Burlew BS. Racial differences in propranolol pharmacokinetics. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1992, 51:495-500. 10.1038/clpt.1992.53, 1587062.
53. Wright JT, DiPette DJ, Goodman RP, Townsend R, McKenney JM. Renin profile, race, and antihypertensive efficacy with atenolol and labetalol. J Hum Hypertens 1991, 5:193-198.
54. Stein M, O'Malley K, Kilfeather S. Ethnic differences in cyclic AMP accumulation: effect on alpha 2, beta 2, and prostanoid receptor responses. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1990, 47:360-365. 10.1038/clpt.1990.40, 2155733.
55. Rutledge DR, Steinberg J, Cardozo L. Racial differences in drug response: isoproterenol effects on heart rate following intravenous metoprolol. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1989, 45:380-386. 10.1038/clpt.1989.44, 2702795.
56. Sharoky M, Perkal M, Turner R, Lesko LJ. Steady state relative bioavailability and pharmacokinetics of oral propranolol in black and white North Americans. Biopharm Drug Dispos 1988, 9:447-456. 10.1002/bod.2510090503, 3224162.
57. Hawkins DW, Dieckmann MR, Horner RD. Diuretics and hypertension in black adults. Arch Intern Med 1988, 148:803-805. 10.1001/archinte.1988.00380040043009, 3281620.
58. Lettieri JT, Krol GJ, Yeh SC, Burkholder DE, Zinny M, O'Donnell D. The effects of age and race on nitrendipine pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1988, 12:S129-S132.
59. Iyun AO, Lennard MS, Tucker GT, Woods HF. Metoprolol and debrisoquin metabolism in Nigerians: lack of evidence for polymorphic oxidation. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1986, 40:387-394. 10.1038/clpt.1986.195, 3757401.
60. Vincent J, Elliott HL, Meredith PA, Reid JL. Racial differences in drug responses-a comparative study of trimazosin and alpha 1-adrenoceptor responses in normotensive Caucasians and West Africans. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1986, 21:401-408. 10.1111/j.1365-2125.1986.tb05214.x, 1400935, 3011048.
61. Venter CP, Joubert PH, Strydom WJ. Comparative pharmacokinetics of intravenous propranolol in black and white volunteers. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1985, 7:409-410. 10.1097/00005344-198503000-00029, 2581098.
62. Venter CP, Daya S, Joubert PH, Strydom WJ. Ethnic differences in human lymphocytic cyclic AMP production after isoprenaline stimulation and propranolol blockade. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1985, 19:187-190. 10.1111/j.1365-2125.1985.tb02630.x, 1463703, 2985101.
63. Freis ED, Materson BJ, Flamenbaum V. Comparison of propranolol or hydrochlorothiazide alone for treatment of hypertension. III. Evaluation of the renin-angiotensin system. Am J Med 1983, 74:1029-1041. 10.1016/0002-9343(83)90812-4, 6344619.
64. Juma FD. Pharmacokinetics of pindolol in Kenyan Africans. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1983, 25:425-426. 10.1007/BF01037959, 6628532.
65. Holland OB, Gomez-Sanchez C, Fairchild C, Kaplan NM. Role of renin classification for diuretic treatment of black hypertensive patients. Arch Intern Med 1979, 139:1365-1370. 10.1001/archinte.1979.03630490029011, 518220.
66. Holland OB, Gomez-Sanchez CE, Kuhnert LV, Poindexter C, Pak CY. Antihypertensive comparison of furosemide with hydrochlorothiazide for black patients. Arch Intern Med 1979, 139:1015-1021. 10.1001/archinte.1979.03630460047016, 383033.
67. Salako LA, Falase AO, Ragon A, Adio RA. beta-Adrenoceptor blocking effects and pharmacokinetics of pindolol. A study in hypertensive Africans. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1979, 15:299-304. 10.1007/BF00558431, 37094.
68. European Medicines Agency Scientific discussion. Aprovel/Karvea (Irbesartan). [http://www.ema.europa.eu/ema/pages/includes/document/open_document.jsp?webContentId=WC500025747], European Medicines Agency.
69. Glyn MC, Anderssohn M, Lüneburg N, Van Rooyen JM, Schutte R, Huisman HW, Fourie CM, Smith W, Malan L, Malan NT, Mels CM, Böger RH, Schutte AE. Ethnicity-specific differences in L-arginine status in South African men. J Hum Hypertens 2012, 26:737-743. 10.1038/jhh.2011.103, 22129611.
70. Wassertheil-Smoller S, Davis BR, Oberman A, Blaufox MD, Langford H, Wylie-Rosett J, Hawkins M, Zimbaldi N. The TAIM study: sex-race differences in effects of diet and drugs on cardiovascular risk. Cardiovasc Risk Factors 1991, 1:427-435.
71. Chun TY, Bankir L, Eckert GJ, Bichet DG, Saha C, Zaidi SA, Wagner MA, Pratt JH. Ethnic differences in renal responses to furosemide. Hypertension 2008, 52:241-248. 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.108.109801, 18606909.
72. Brewster LM, Taherzadeh Z, Volger S, Clark JF, Rolf T, Wolf H, Vanbavel E, van Montfrans GA. Ethnic differences in resistance artery contractility of normotensive pregnant women. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2010, 299:H431-H436. 10.1152/ajpheart.00919.2009, 20511407.
73. Brewster LM, Coronel CM, Sluiter W, Clark JF, van Montfrans GA. Ethnic differences in tissue creatine kinase activity: an observational study. PLoS One 2012, 7:e32471. 10.1371/journal.pone.0032471, 3306319, 22438879.
74. Johnson JA, Zineh I, Puckett BJ, McGorray SP, Yarandi HN, Pauly DF. Beta 1-adrenergic receptor polymorphisms and antihypertensive response to metoprolol. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2003, 74:44-52. 10.1016/S0009-9236(03)00068-7, 12844134.
75. Sowinski KM, Burlew BS, Johnson JA. Racial differences in sensitivity to the negative chronotropic effects of propranolol in healthy men. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1995, 57:678-683. 10.1016/0009-9236(95)90231-7, 7781268.
76. Duarte JD, Lobmeyer MT, Wang Z, Chapman AB, Gums JG, Langaee TY, Boerwinkle E, Turner ST, Johnson JA. Lack of association between polymorphisms in STK39, a putative thiazide response gene, and blood pressure response to hydrochlorothiazide. Pharmacogenet Genomics 2010, 20:516-519. 10.1097/FPC.0b013e32833b5958, 2922977, 20555294.
77. Lobmeyer MT, Wang L, Zineh I, Turner ST, Gums JG, Chapman AB, Cooper-DeHoff RM, Beitelshees AL, Bailey KR, Boerwinkle E, Pepine CJ, Johnson JA. Polymorphisms in genes coding for GRK2 and GRK5 and response differences in antihypertensive-treated patients. Pharmacogenet Genomics 2011, 21:42-49. 10.1097/FPC.0b013e328341e911, 3028503, 21127457.
78. Venter CP, Joubert PH. Ethnic differences in response to betaradrenoceptor blockade by propranolol. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1984, 6:361-364. 10.1097/00005344-198403000-00024, 6200729.
79. Gaskin RS, Estwick D, Peddi R. G6PD deficiency: its role in the high prevalence of hypertension and diabetes mellitus. Ethn Dis 2001, 11:749-754.
80. Leopold JA, Cap A, Scribner AW, Stanton RC, Loscalzo J. Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency promotes endothelial oxidant stress and decreases endothelial nitric oxide bioavailability. FASEB J 2001, 15:1771-1773.
81. Houghton JL, Philbin EF, Strogatz DS, Torosoff MT, Fein SA, Kuhner PA, Smith VE, Carr AA. The presence of African American race predicts improvement in coronary endothelial function after supplementary L-arginine. J Am Coll Cardiol 2002, 39:1314-1322. 10.1016/S0735-1097(02)01781-3, 11955849.
82. Pratt JH, Rebhun JF, Zhou L, Ambrosius WT, Newman SA, Gomez-Sanchez CE, Mayes DF. Levels of mineralocorticoids in whites and blacks. Hypertension 1999, 34:315-319. 10.1161/01.HYP.34.2.315, 10454460.
83. Duarte JD, Turner ST, Tran B, Chapman AB, Bailey KR, Gong Y, Gums JG, Langaee TY, Beitelshees AL, Cooper-Dehoff RM, Boerwinkle E, Johnson JA. Association of chromosome 12 locus with antihypertensive response to hydrochlorothiazide may involve differential YEATS4 expression. Pharmacogenomics J 2012, [Epub ahead of print].
84. Flack JM, Oparil S, Pratt JH, Roniker B, Garthwaite S, Kleiman JH, Yang Y, Krause SL, Workman D, Saunders E. Efficacy and tolerability of eplerenone and losartan in hypertensive black and white patients. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003, 41:1148-1155. 10.1016/S0735-1097(03)00054-8, 12679215.
85. Rebbeck TR, Sankar P. Ethnicity, ancestry, and race in molecular epidemiologic research. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2005, 14:2467-2471. 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-05-0649, 16284364.
86. Greger R. Physiology of renal sodium transport. Am J Med Sci 2000, 319:51-62. 10.1097/00000441-200001000-00005, 10653444.
87. Guerrero ML, Beron J, Spindler B, Groscurth P, Wallimann T, Verrey F. Metabolic support of Na + pump in apically permeabilized A6 kidney cell epithelia: role of creatine kinase. Am J Physiol 1997, 272:C697-C706.
88. Dzeja PP, Terzic A. Phosphotransfer networks and cellular energetics. J Exp Biol 2003, 206:2039-2047. 10.1242/jeb.00426, 12756286.
89. Clark JF. The creatine kinase system in smooth muscle. Mol Cell Biochem 1994, 133-134:221-232.
90. Hardin CD, Raeymaekers L, Paul RJ. Comparison of endogenous and exogenous sources of ATP in fueling Ca2+ uptake in smooth muscle plasma membrane vesicles. J Gen Physiol 1992, 99:21-40. 10.1085/jgp.99.1.21, 2216599, 1311020.
91. Raina H, Zacharia J, Li M, Wier WG. Activation by Ca2+/calmodulin of an exogenous myosin light chain kinase in mouse arteries. J Physiol 2009, 587:2599-2612. 10.1113/jphysiol.2008.165258, 2714024, 19403597.
92. Veterans Administration Cooperative Study Group on Antihypertensive Agents Comparison of propranolol and hydrochlorothiazide for the initial treatment of hypertension. I. Results of short-term titration with emphasis on racial differences in response. JAMA 1982, 248:1996-2003. Veterans Administration Cooperative Study Group on Antihypertensive Agents.
93. Stepien O, Zhang Y, Zhu D, Marche P. Dual mechanism of action of amlodipine in human vascular smooth muscle cells. J Hypertens 2002, 20:95-102. 10.1097/00004872-200201000-00014, 11791031.
94. Wu G, Morris SM. Arginine metabolism: nitric oxide and beyond. Biochem J 1998, 336:1-17. 1219836, 9806879.
95. Lee DL, Webb RC, Jin L. Hypertension and RhoA/Rho-kinase signaling in the vasculature: highlights from the recent literature. Hypertension 2004, 44:796-799. 10.1161/01.HYP.0000148303.98066.ab, 15520302.
96. Wedler B, Brier ME, Wiersbitzky M, Gruska S, Wolf E, Kallwellis R, Aronoff GR, Luft FC. Sodium kinetics in salt-sensitive and salt-resistant normotensive and hypertensive subjects. J Hypertens 1992, 10:663-669.
97. Desta B, Vanhoutte PM, Boulanger CM. Inhibition of the angiotensin converting enzyme by perindoprilat and release of nitric oxide. Am J Hypertens 1995, 8:1S-6S. 10.1016/0895-7061(95)00026-L, 7544135.
98. Turner ST, Schwartz GL, Boerwinkle E. Personalized medicine for high blood pressure. Hypertension 2007, 50:1-5. 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.107.087049, 17470720.
99. Johnsen SH, Lilleng H, Wilsgaard T, Bekkelund SI. Creatine kinase activity and blood pressure in a normal population: the Tromsø study. J Hypertens 2011, 29:36-42. 10.1097/HJH.0b013e32834068e0, 21063205.
100. Oudman I, Kewalbansingh P, van Valkengoed I, Zwinderman AH, Clark JF, van Montfrans GA, Brewster LM. Creatine kinase is associated with failure of hypertension treatment. J Hypertens 2013, 31:1025-1031. 10.1097/HJH.0b013e32835f5c29, 23466941.
101. Myers HF, McClure H. Psychosocial factors in hypertension in blacks: the case for an interactional perspective. Pathophysiology of Hypertension in Blacks 1993, 90-106. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Fray JCS, Douglas JG.
102. MacMahon S, Alderman MH, Lindholm LH, Liu L, Sanchez RA, Seedat YK. Blood-pressure-related disease is a global health priority. Lancet 2008, 371:1480-1482. 10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60632-7, 18456084.