Online social movements

Annual Review of Information Science and Technology

Volumn 45, Issue , 2011, Pages 489-522

  Hara, Noriko ^a   Huang, Bi Yun ^a  

^a INDIANA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84877137013     PISSN: 00664200     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1002/aris.2011.1440450117     Document Type: Article

References (160)

1. Almeida, P. D., & Lichbach, M. I. (2003). To the internet, from the internet: Comparative media coverage of transnational protests. Mobilization, 8(3), 249-272.
2. Anthony, D., Smith, S. W., & Williamson, T. (2009). Reputation and reliability in collective goods: The case of the online encyclopedia Wikipedia. Rationality & Society, 21, 263-306.
3. Arquilla, J., & Ronfeldt, D. (2001). Emergence and influence of the Zapatista social netwar. In D. Ronfeldt & J. Arquilla (Eds.), Networks and netwars: The future of terror, crime, and militancy (pp. 171-199). Santa Monica, CA: Rand.
4. Balka, E. (1993). Women's access to online discussions about feminism. Retrieved May 27, 2009, from feminism.eserver.org/gender/cyberspace/feminist-use-of-cyberspace.txt/ document_view
5. Benford, R. D., & Snow, D. A. (2000). Framing processes and social movements: An overview and assessment. Annual Review of Sociology, 26, 611-639.
6. Bennett, W. L. (2003). Communicating global activism: Strengths and vulnerabilities of networked politics. Information, Communication & Society, 6(2), 143-168.
7. Bennett, W. L., & Toft, A. (2009). Identity, technology, and narratives: Transnational activism and social networks. In A. Chadwick & P. N. Howard (Eds.), Routledge handbook of internet politics (pp. 246-260). London: Routledge.
8. Berman, A. (2009, June 15). Iran's Twitter revolution. The Nation. Retrieved July 9, 2009, from www.thenation.com/blogs/notion/443634
9. Bijker, W. E. (2001). Social construction of technology. In N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes (Eds.), International encyclopaedia of the social and behavioral sciences (Vol. 23, pp. 15522-15527). Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science.
10. Bimber, B., Flanagin, A. J., & Stohl, C. (2005). Reconceptualizing collective action in the contemporary media environment. Communication Theory, 15(4), 365-388.
11. Bloomfield, A. (2007, May 18). Estonia calls for NATO cyber-terrorism strategy. Retrieved February 9, 2010, from www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1551963/Estonia-callsfor-Nato-cyber-terrorism-strategy.html
12. Bullert, B. (2000). Strategic public relations, sweatshops, and the making of a global movement. Working Paper# 2000-14. Cambridge, MA: The Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press, Politics and Public Policy. Harvard University. Retrieved June 30, 2009, from www.hks.harvard.edu/presspol/publications/papers/working_papers/2000_14_bullert. pdf
13. Byrne, D. N. (2007). Public discourse, community concerns, and civic engagement: Exploring Black social networking traditions on BlackPlanet.com. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 13(1), 319-340.
14. Callon, M. (1986). Some elements of a sociology of translation: Domestication of the scallops and the fishermen of St. Brieuc Bay. In J. Law (Ed.), Power, action and belief (pp. 196-233). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
15. Carty, V. (2002). Technology and counter-hegemonic movements: The case of Nike corporation. Social Movement Studies, 1(2), 129-146.
16. Castells, M. (1997). The power of identity. New York: Blackwell.
17. Castells, M. (1999). An introduction to the information age. In H. Mackay & T. O'Sullivan (Eds.), The media reader: Continuity and transformation (pp. 398-410). London: Sage.
18. Castells, M. (2000). The rise of the network society (2nd ed.). New York: Blackwell.
19. Castells, M., Fernandez-Ardevol, M., Qiu, J. L., & Sey, A. (2007). Mobile communication and society: A global perspective. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
20. Chadwick, A. (2007). Digital network repertoires and organizational hybridity. Political Communication, 24(3), 283-301.
21. Chase, M., & Mulvenon, J. (2002). You've got dissent!: Chinese dissident use of the internet and Beijing's counter-strategies. Santa Monica, CA: Rand.
22. Cheta. (2004). Dis@bled people, ICTs and a new age of activism: A Portuguese accessibility special interest group study. In W. van de Donk, B. D. Loader, P. G. Nihon, & D. Rucht (Eds.), Cyberprotest: New media, citizens and social movements (pp. 207-232). New York: Routledge.
23. Clark, J. D., & Themudo, N. S. (2006). Linking the web and the street: Internet-based "dotcauses" and the "anti-globalization." World Development, 34(1), 50-74.
24. Cohen, J. (1985). Strategy or identity: New theoretical paradigms and contemporary social movements. Social Research, 52, 663-716.
25. Collin, B. (1997, March). The future of cyberterrorism. Crime and Justice International, 13(2), 15-18.
26. Cronauer, K. (2004). Activism and the internet: A socio-political analysis of how the use of electronic mailing lists affects mobilization in social movement organizations. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of British Columbia, Vancouver.
27. Danitz, T., & Strobel, W. P. (1999). The internet's impact on activism: The case of Burma. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 22(3), 257-269.
28. Deibert, R. (2000). International plug 'n play? Citizen activism, the internet, and global public policy. International Studies Perspectives, 1, 255-272.
29. Denning, D. (1999). Information warfare and security. Boston: Addison-Wesley.
30. Denning, D. (2001). Activism, hacktivism, and cyberterrorism: The internet as a tool for influencing foreign policy. In J. Arquilla & D. Ronfeldt (Eds.), Networks and netwars (pp. 239-288). Santa Monica, CA: Rand.
31. Diani, M. (1992). The concept of social movement. Sociological Review, 40, 1-25.
32. Diani, M. (2000). Social movement networks: Virtual and real. Information, Communication and Society, 3(3), 386-401.
33. Earl, J., & Schussman, A. (2003). The new site of activism: Online organization, movement entrepreneurs, and the changing location of social movement decision making. Research in Social Movement, Conflict and Change, 24, 155-187.
34. Edwards, A. (2004). The Dutch women's movement online: Internet and the organizational infrastructure of a social movement. In W. van de Donk, B. D. Loader, P. G. Nihon, & D. Rucht (Eds.), Cyberprotest: New media, citizens and social movements (pp. 183-206). London: Routledge.
35. Elliott, M. S., & Kraemer, K. L. (Eds.) (2008). Computerization movements and technology diffusion: From mainframes to ubiquitous computing. Medford, NJ: Information Today, Inc.
36. Etzioni, A., & Etzioni, O. (1999). Face-to-face and computer-mediated communities: A comparative analysis. The Information Society, 15, 241-248.
37. Facebook. (2010). Press room: Statistics. Retrieved March 12, 2010, from www.facebook. com/press/info.php?statistics
38. Fox, S. (2004). Older Americans and the internet. Washington, DC: Pew Internet & American Life Project. Retrieved June 17, 2009, from www.pewinternet.org/ ~/media//Files/Reports/2004/PIP_Seniors_Online_2004.pdf.pdf
39. Freeman, J. (1979). Resource mobilization and strategy: A model for analyzing social movement organization actions. In M. N. Zald & J. D. McCarthy (Eds.), Dynamics of social movement (pp. 167-189). Cambridge, MA: Winthrop.
40. Gamson, W. A. (1990). The strategy of social protest. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing.
41. Gamson, W. A., Croteau, D., Hoynes, W., & Sasson, T. (1992). Media images and the social construction of reality. Annual Review of Sociology, 18, 373-393.
42. Garrett, R. K. (2006). Protest in an information society: A review of literature on social movements and new ICTs. Information, Communication & Society, 9(2), 202-224.
43. Garrett, R. K., & Edwards, P. N. (2007). Revolutionary secrets: Technology's role in the South African anti-apartheid movement. Social Science Computer Review, 25(1), 13-26.
44. Gillan, K. (2009). The UK anti-war movement online: Uses and limitations of internet technologies for contemporary activism. Information, Communication & Society, 12(1), 25-43.
45. Goffman, E. (1974). Frame analysis. New York: Harper.
46. Greengard, S. (2009). The first internet president. Communications of the ACM, 52(2), 16-18.
47. Gueorguieva, V. (2008). Voters, MySpace, and YouTube: The impact of alternative communication channels on the 2006 election cycle and beyond. Social Science Computer Review, 26(3), 288-300.
48. Hara, N. (2008). Internet use for political mobilization: Voices of the participants. First Monday, 13(7). Retrieved May 20, 2009, from www.uic.edu/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index. php/fm/article/view/2123/1976
49. Hara, N., & Estrada, Z. C. (2005). Analyzing the mobilization of grassroots activities via the internet: A case study. Journal of Information Science, 31(6), 503-514.
50. Hara, N., & Rosenbaum, H. (2008). Revising the conceptualization of computerization movements. The Information Society, 24(4), 229-245.
51. Hara, N., & Shachaf, P. (2008). Online peace movement organizations: A comparative analysis. In I. Chen & T. Kidd (Eds.), Social information technology: Connection society and cultural issues (pp. 52-67). Hershey, PA: Idea Group.
52. Hechter, M., Friedman, D., & Appelbaum, M. (1982). A theory of ethnic collective action. International Migration Review, 16(2), 412-434.
53. Hess, D., Breyman, S., Campbell, N., & Martin, B. (2008). Science, technology and social movements. In E. J. Hackett, O. Amsterdamska, M. Lynch, & J. Wajcman (Eds.), The handbook of science and technology studies (3rd ed.) (pp. 273-498). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
54. Hsu, C. (2003, May). The internet and social movements: An exploratory study of a Taiwanese virtual mobilization. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Communication Association, San Diego, CA.
55. Huang, B. (2009). Analyzing a social movement's use of internet: Resource mobilization, new social movement theories and the case of Falun Gong. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University.
56. Hunt, S., Benford, R., & Snow, D. (1994). Identity fields: Framing processes and the social construction of movement identities. In E. Laraña, H. Johnston, & J. R. Gusfield (Eds.), New social movements: From ideology to identity (pp. 185-208). Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
57. Hurley, B., & Charleton, D. (2005). April 25: Not just a significant day on the Australian calendar. Retrieved February 20, 2005, from www.fofg.org
58. Iacono, S., & Kling, R. (2001). Computerization movements: The rise of the internet and distant forms of work. In J. Yates & J. Van Maanen (Eds.), Information technology and organizational transformation: History, rhetoric, and practice (pp. 93-136). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
59. Jenkins, J. C. (1981). Sociopolitical movements. In S. Long (Ed.), The handbook of political behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 81-153). New York: Plenum Press.
60. Jones, S. (1998). Cybersociety 2.0 revisiting computer-mediated communication and community. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
61. Kahn, R., & Kellner, D. (2004). New media and internet activism: From the "Battle of Seattle" to blogging. New Media and Society, 6(1), 87-95.
62. Kennedy, T. (2000). Women and the internet: An exploratory study of feminist experiences in cyberspace. Cyberpsychology and Behavior, 2(5), 707-719.
63. Kidd, D. (2003). Indymedia.org: A new communications commons. In M. McCaughey & M. D. Ayers (Eds.), Cyberactivism: Online activism in theory and practice (pp. 47-70). London: Routledge.
64. Klandermans, B. (1984). Mobilization and participation: Social psychological expansions of resource mobilization theory. American Sociological Review, 49, 583-600.
65. Klandermans, B. (2004). The demand and supply of participation: Social psychological correlates of participation in a social movement. In D. A. Snow, S. Soule, & H. Kriesi (Eds.), Blackwell Companion to Social Movements (pp. 360-379). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
66. Kling, R. (1994). Reading "all about" computerization: How genre conventions shape nonfiction social analysis. The Information Society, 10(3), 147-172.
67. Kling, R. (1999). Can the next-generation internet effectively support ordinary citizens? The Information Society, 15(1), 57-64.
68. Kling, R., & Iacono, S. (1994). Computerization movements and the mobilization of support for computerization. In L. Starr (Ed.), Ecologies of knowledge. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. Retrieved February 10, 2010, from rkcsi.indiana.edu/archive/kling/pubs/MOBIL94C. htm
69. Kling, R., Rosenbaum, H., & Sawyer. S. (2005). Understanding and communicating social informatics: A framework for studying and teaching the human contexts of information and communication technologies. Medford, NJ: Information Today, Inc.
70. Kobrin, S. (1998). The MAI and the clash of globalization. Foreign Policy, 112, 97-109.
71. Kreiss, D. (2009, October). The whole world is networking: Crafting networked politics from Howard Dean to Barack Obama. Paper presented at the Society for Social Studies of Science Annual Meeting, Washington, DC.
72. Laraña, E., Johnston, H., & Gusfield, J. R. (Eds.). (1994). New social movements: From ideology to identity. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
73. Latour, B. (1987). Science in action: How to follow scientists and engineers through society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
74. Law, J. (1987). Technology and heterogeneous engineering: The case of Portuguese expansion. In W. E. Bijker, T. P. Hughes, & T. J. Pinch (Eds.), The social construction of technology systems: New directions in the sociology and history of technology (pp. 111-134). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
75. Leizerov, S. (2000). Privacy advocacy group versus Intel: A case study of how social movements are tactically using the internet to fight corporations. Social Science Computer Review, 18(4), 461-483.
76. Lievrouw, L. A. (2006). Oppositional and activist new media: Remediation, reconfiguration, participation. Proceedings of the Participatory Design Conference: Expanding Boundaries in Design, 115-124. Retrieved June 12, 2009, from polaris.gseis.ucla.edu/l lievrou/LievrouwPDC06Rev2.pdf
77. Lin, N. (2001). Social capital: A theory of social structure and action. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
78. Loader, B. D. (2003). Social movements online. In K. Christensen & D. Levinson (Eds.), Encyclopedia of community: From the village to the virtual world (pp. 1319-1320). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
79. Ma, L. (2007). Cyberactivism: Internet gratifications, collective identity and political participation. Asian Communication Research, 4(1), 25-42.
80. Mantovani, G. (1996). Social context in HCI: A new framework for mental models, cooperation, and communication. Cognitive Science, 20, 237-269.
81. Marden, M. L. (1978). The proliferation of a social movement, ideology and individual incentives in the contemporary feminist movement. In L. Kriesberg (Ed.), Research in social movement, conflict and change (Vol. 1, pp. 179-196). Greenwich, CT: JAI.
82. McAdam, D. (1994). Culture and social movements. In E. Laraña, H. Johnston & J. R. Gusfield (Eds.), New social movements: From idealogy to identity (pp. 36-57). Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
83. McAdam, D. (1996). Political opportunities: Conceptual origins, current problems, future directions. In D. McAdam, J. D. McCarthy, & M. N. Zald (Eds.), Comparative perspectives on social movements: Political opportunities, mobilizing structures, and cultural framings (pp. 23-40). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
84. McAdam, D., Tilly, C., & Tarrow, C. (1996). To map contentious politics. Mobilization, 1, 17-34.
85. McCarthy, J. D., & Zald, M. N. (1977). Resource mobilization and social movements: A partial theory. American Journal of Sociology, 82, 1212-1239.
86. McCaughey, M., & Ayers, M. D. (Eds.). (2003). Cyberactivism: Online activism in theory and practice. New York: Routledge.
87. Meikle, G. (2002). Future active: Media activism and the internet. New York: Routledge.
88. Melucci, A. (1985). The symbolic challenge of contemporary social movements. Social Research, 52(4), 789-816.
89. Melucci, A. (1988). Social movements and the democratization of everyday life. In J. Keane (Ed.), Civil society and the state: New European perspectives (pp. 245-261). London: Verso.
90. Melucci, A. (1989). Nomads of the present. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
91. Melucci, A. (1995). The process of collective identity. In H. Johnston & B. Klandermans (Eds.), Social movements and culture (pp. 41-63). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
92. Melucci, A. (1996). Changing codes: Collective action in the information age. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
93. Meyer, D. S. (2004). Protest and political opportunities. Annual Review of Sociology, 30, 125-145.
94. Micheletti, M., Stolle, D., Nishikawa, L., & Wright, M. (2004, August). A case of discursive political consumerism: The Nike email exchange. Paper presented at the 2nd International Seminar on Political Consumerism, Oslo, Norway.
95. Miller, D., & Slater, D. (2000). The internet: An ethnographic approach. New York: Berg.
96. Myers, D. (1994). Communication technology and social movements: Contributions of computer networks to activism. Social Science Computer Review, 12, 250-260.
97. Myers, D. (2002). Social activism through computer networks. In O. V. Burton (Ed.), Computing in the social sciences and humanities (pp. 124-137). Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
98. Nah, S., Veenstra, A. S., & Shah, D. V. (2006). The internet and anti-war activism: A case study of information, expression, and action. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12, 230-247.
99. Nakamura, L. (2002). Cybertypes: Race, ethnicity, and identity on the internet. New York: Routledge.
100. National Telecommunications and Information Administration. (2000a). National Telecommunications and Information Administration Annual Report 2000. Washington, DC: The Administration. Retrieved June 8, 2009, from www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/ annualrpt/2001/2000annrpt.htm.
101. National Telecommunications and Information Administration. (2000b). Falling through the net: Toward digital inclusion. Washington, DC: The Administration. Retrieved June 8, 2009, from www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/fttn00/contents00.html.
102. National Telecommunications and Information Administration. (2002). A nation online: How Americans are expanding their use of the internet. Washington, DC: The Administration. Retrieved June 15, 2009, from www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/dn/html/toc. htm
103. National Telecommunications and Information Administration. (2007). Households using the internet in and outside the home, by selected characteristics: Total, urban, rural, and central city. Washington, DC: The Administration. Retrieved June 15, 2009, from www.ntia.doc.gov/reports/2008/Table_HouseholdInternet2007.pdf.
104. Neeley, D. (2000). Hacktivism or vandalism? Security Management, 44(2), 30.
105. Nip, J. (2004). The queer sisters and its electronic bulletin board: A study of the internet for social movement mobilization. Information, Communication & Society, 7(1), 23-49.
106. Nisbet, M. C., & Kotcher, J. E. (2009). A two-step flow of influence? Opinion-leader campaigns on climate change. Science Communication 30(3), 328-354.
107. Nisbet, M. C., & Kotcher, J. E. (in press). A two-step flow of influence? Opinion-leader campaigns on climate change. Science Communication.
108. Norris, P. (2001). Digital divide: Civic engagement, information poverty, and the internet worldwide. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
109. Nov, O. (2007). What motivates Wikipedians? Communications of the ACM, 50(11), 60-64.
110. Offe, C. (1985). New social movements: Challenging the boundaries of institutional politics. Social Research, 52(4), 817-868.
111. Oliver, P. E., & Johnston, H. (2000). What a good idea! Frames and ideologies in social movement research. Mobilization, 5(1), 37-54.
112. Oliver, P. E., & Maney, G. M. (2000). Political processes and local newspaper coverage of protest events: From selection bias to triadic interactions. American Journal of Sociology, 106(2), 463-505.
113. Olson, M. (1965). The logic of collective action: Public goods and the theory of groups. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
114. Onosaka, J. (2003). Opening a Pandora's box: The cyber activism of Japanese women. In K. C. Ho, R. Kluver, & K. C. Yang (Eds.), Asia.Com: Asia encounters the internet (pp. 211-227). New York: Routledge.
115. Owens, L., & Palmer, L. K. (2003). Making the news: Anarchist counter-public relations on the World Wide Web. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 20(4), 335-361.
116. Park, E. (2002). "Net" profit of the nonprofits. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Cornell University Press.
117. Park, H. S. (2002). Case study: Public consensus building on the internet. Cyber Psychology and Behavior, 5(3), 233-239.
118. Paulos, E., Honicky, R. J., & Hooker, B. (2008). Citizen science: Enabling participatory urbanism. In M. Roth (Ed.), Handbook of research on urban informatics: The practice and promise of the real-time city (pp. 414-436). Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference, IGI Global.
119. Pérez, M. C. (2008, February 8). Facebook brings protests to Columbia. New York Times. Retrieved June 14, 2009, from www.nytimes.com/2008/02/08/business/worldbusiness/ 08iht-protest11.html?_r=1.
120. Peteet, J. (2000). Refugees, resistance, and identity. In J. Guidry, M. Kennedy, & M. N. Zald (Eds.), Globalization and social movements (pp. 183-209). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
121. Pickard, V. W. (2006). United yet autonomous: Indymedia and the struggle to sustain a radical democratic network. Media, Culture, and Society, 8(3), 315-336.
122. Pickerill, J. (2001). Weaving a green web? Environmental activists' use of computer mediated communication in Britain. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Newcastle upon Tyne.
123. Pickerill, J. (2007). "Autonomy online": Indymedia and practices of alter-globalisation. Environment and Planning A, 39, 2668-2684.
124. Pini, B., Brown, K., & Previte, H. (2004). Politics and identity in cyberspace: A case study of Australian women in agriculture online. Information, Communication and Society, 7(2), 167-194.
125. Polletta, F., & Jasper, J. M. (2001). Collective identity and social movements. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 283-305.
126. Porta, D. D., & Diani, M. (1999). Social movements: An introduction. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing.
127. Porter, N. (2003). Falun Gong in the United States: An ethnographic study. Parkland: University of South Florida.
128. Pudrovska, T., & Ferree, M. M. (2004). Global activism in virtual space. The European women's lobby in the network of transnational women's NGOs on the web. Social Politics, 11(1), 117-143.
129. Rainie, L., Reddy, P., & Bell, P. (2004). Rural areas and the internet. Washington, DC: Pew Internet & American Life Project. Retrieved March 7, 2010, from www.pewinternet.org/ Reports/2004/Rural-Areas-and-the-Internet.aspx
130. Riemer, J. (2003). Grass-roots power through internet technology: The case of the Crandon mine. Society and Natural Resources, 16, 853-868.
131. Sanson, A. (2008). Facebook and youth mobilization in the 2008 presidential election. Gnovis Journal, 8(3), 152-174.
132. Sawyer, S., & Tapia, A. (2007). From findings to theories: Institutionalizing social informatics. The Information Society, 23(4), 263-275.
133. Sayers, T. (1998). Cyberfeminism in Canada: Women, women's organizations, the women's movement and internet technology. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada.
134. Schectman, J. (2009, June 17). Iran's Twitter revolution? Maybe not yet. Business Week. Retrieved July 9, 2009, from www.businessweek.com/technology/content/jun2009/ tc20090617_803990.htm
135. Schwartz, E. (1998). An internet resource for neighborhoods. In R. Tsagarousianou, D. Tambini, & C. Bryan (Eds.), Cyberdemocracy: Technology, cities and civic networks (pp. 110-124). London: Routledge.
136. Shirky, C. (2008). Here comes everybody. The power of organizing without organizations. New York: Penguin Books.
137. Smith, B., Costello, T., & Brecher, J. (2009, January 15). Social movements 2.0. The Nation. Retrieved June 20, 2010, from www.thenation.com/article/social-movements-20.
138. Smith, M., & Kollock, P. (1999). Communities in cyberspace. New York: Routledge.
139. Snow, D. A., Rochford, B., Worden, S. K., & Benford, R. D. (1986). Frame alignment processes, micromobilization, and movement participation. American Sociological Review, 51(4), 464-481.
140. Spender, D. (1995). Nattering on the net: Women, power and cyberspace. Victoria, Australia: Spinefex.
141. Spooner, T. (2003). Internet use by region in the United States. Washington, DC: Pew Internet & American Life Project. Retrieved March 19, 2010, from www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2003/Internet-Use-by-Region-in-the-US.aspx.
142. Stromer-Galley, J. (2000). On-line interaction and why candidates avoid it. Journal of Communication, 50(4), 111-132.
143. Stryker, S., Owens, T. J., & White, R. W. (2000). Identity, self, and social movements. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
144. Sunstein, C. R. (2009). Republic.com. 2.0. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
145. Talbot, D. (2008, September/October). How Obama really did it. Technology Review. Retrieved June 14, 2009, from www.technologyreview.com/web/21222.
146. Tarrow, S. (1998). Power in movement: Social movements and contentious politics (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
147. Taylor, V., & Whittier, E. (1992). Collective identity in social movement communities: Lesbian feminist mobilization. In A. Morris & C. McClurg Mueller (Eds.), Frontiers in social movement theory (pp. 104-129). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
148. Tilly, C. (1978). From mobilization to revolution. London: Addison-Wesley.
149. Touraine, A. (1981). The voice and the eye: An analysis of social movements. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
150. van Dijk, J., & Hacker, K. (2003). The digital divide as a complex and dynamic phenomenon. The Information Society, 19, 315-326.
151. Vegh, S. (2003). Classifying forms of online activism. In M. McCaughey & M. D. Ayers (Eds.), Cyberactivism: Online activism in theory and practice (pp. 71-95). New York: Routledge.
152. Wall, M. A. (2007). Social movements and email: Expressions of online identity in the globalization protests. New Media and Society, 9(2), 258-277.
153. Warkentin, C., & Mingst, K. (2000). International institutions, state, and global civil society in the age of the World Wide Web. Global Governance, 6(2), 237-256.
154. Warschauer, M. (2002). Reconceptualizing the digital divide. First Monday, 7(7). Retrieved March 15, 2005, from www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue7_7/warschauer.
155. Webster, F. (2006). Theories of information society. London: Routledge.
156. Wray, S. (2000). Electronic civil disobedience and the World Wide Web of hacktivism: A mapping of extraparliamentarian. In D. Alberts & D. Papp (Eds.), Information age anthology: National security implications of the information age (Vol. 2, pp. 431-456). Retrieved March 22, 2010 from www.dodccrp.org/files/Alberts_Anthology_ II.pdf.
157. Yang, G. (2003). The internet and the rise of a transnational Chinese cultural sphere. Media, Culture and Society, 25(4), 469-490.
158. Yu, H. (2004, June-July). The new living-room war: Media campaigns and Falun Gong. Paper presented at the 15th Biennial Conference of the Asian Studies Association of Australia, Canberra.
159. Zelwietro, J. (1998). The politicization of environmental organizations through the internet. The Information Society, 14, 45-56.
160. Zuo, J., & Benford, R. D. (1995). Mobilization processes and the 1989 Chinese democracy movement. Sociological Quarterly, 36, 131-156.