Optimal management of brain metastases from breast cancer: Issues and considerations

CNS Drugs

Volumn 27, Issue 2, 2013, Pages 121-134

  Bartsch, Rupert ^a   Berghoff, Anna S ^a   Preusser, Matthias ^a  

^a MEDICAL UNIVERSITY OF VIENNA   (Austria)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BEVACIZUMAB; BREAST CANCER RESISTANCE PROTEIN; CAPECITABINE; CARBOPLATIN; CISPLATIN; CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE; DOCETAXEL; DOXORUBICIN; ENDOXIFEN; EPIDERMAL GROWTH FACTOR RECEPTOR 2; EPOTHILONE B; ETOPOSIDE; EVEROLIMUS; FLUOROURACIL; GLUCOSE TRANSPORTER 1; LAPATINIB; METHOTREXATE; MULTIDRUG RESISTANCE PROTEIN; NAVELBINE; PACLITAXEL; PAZOPANIB; PERTUZUMAB; PLACEBO; PREDNISOLONE; TAMOXIFEN; TEMOZOLOMIDE; TOPOTECAN; TRASTUZUMAB; UNINDEXED DRUG; VINCRISTINE;

BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER; BRAIN HEMORRHAGE; BRAIN METASTASIS; BRAIN SURGERY; BREAST CANCER; CANCER CHEMOTHERAPY; CANCER PROGNOSIS; CANCER RADIOTHERAPY; CANCER SURVIVAL; CARCINOMATOUS MENINGITIS; CHEMORADIOTHERAPY; DIARRHEA; DRUG DOSAGE FORM COMPARISON; DRUG DOSE REDUCTION; DRUG MEGADOSE; EARLY TERMINATION OF CLINICAL TRIAL; FATIGUE; FEBRILE NEUTROPENIA; GLIOBLASTOMA; HAND FOOT SYNDROME; HUMAN; LUNG CANCER; MELANOMA; MOLECULARLY TARGETED THERAPY; MULTIPLE CYCLE TREATMENT; NAUSEA; NEUROTOXICITY; NONHUMAN; OVERALL SURVIVAL; PHASE 1 CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); PHASE 2 CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); PHASE 3 CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGRESSION FREE SURVIVAL; RADIATION INJURY; RADIOSURGERY; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); RASH; REVIEW; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; THERAPY DELAY; TREATMENT RESPONSE; TRIPLE NEGATIVE BREAST CANCER; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT;

EID: 84876907916     PISSN: 11727047     EISSN: 11791934     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s40263-012-0024-z     Document Type: Review

References (127)

1. Society AC. Global cancer facts and figures (online). http://www.cancer.org/acs/groups/content/@epidemiologysurveilance/documents/ document/acspc-027766.pdf. Accessed 24 Nov 2011.
2. Lee SS, Ahn JH, Kim MK, et al. Brain metastases in breast cancer: prognostic factors and management. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2008;111(3):523-30.
3. Tsukada Y, Fouad A, Pickren JW, et al. Central nervous system metastasis from breast carcinoma: autopsy study. Cancer. 1983;52(12):2349-54.
4. Weil RJ, Palmieri DC, Bronder JL, et al. Breast cancer metastasis to the central nervous system. Am J Pathol. 2005;167(4):913-20.
5. Miller KD, Weathers T, Haney LG, et al. Occult central nervous system involvement in patients with metastatic breast cancer: prevalence, predictive factors and impact on overall survival. Ann Oncol. 2003;14(7):1072-7.
6. Lin NU, Bellon JR, Winer EP. CNS metastases in breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2004;22(17):3608-17.
7. Evans AJ, James JJ, Cornford EJ, et al. Brain metastases from breast cancer: identification of a high-risk group. Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol). 2004;16(5):345-9.
8. Slimane K, Andre F, Delaloge S, et al. Risk factors for brain relapse in patients with metastatic breast cancer. Ann Oncol. 2004;15(11):1640-4.
9. Gabos Z, Sinha R, Hanson J, et al. Prognostic significance of human epidermal growth factor receptor positivity for the development of brain metastasis after newly diagnosed breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2006;24(36):5658-63.
10. Brufsky AM, Mayer M, Rugo HS, et al. Central nervous system metastases in patients with HER2-positive metastatic breast cancer: incidence, treatment, and survival in patients from registHER. Clin Cancer Res. 2011;17(14):4834-43.
11. Stemmler HJ, Schmitt M, Willems A, et al. Ratio of trastuzumab levels in serum and cerebrospinal fluid is altered in HER2-positive breast cancer patients with brain metastases and impairment of blood-brain barrier. Anticancer Drugs. 2007;18(1):23-8.
12. Yau T, Swanton C, Chua S, et al. Incidence, pattern and timing of brain metastases among patients with advanced breast cancer treated with trastuzumab. Acta Oncol. 2006;45(2):196-201.
13. Pestalozzi BC, Zahrieh D, Price KN, et al. Identifying breast cancer patients at risk for central nervous system (CNS) metastases in trials of the International Breast Cancer Study Group (IBCSG). Ann Oncol. 2006;17(6):935-44.
14. Konecny GE, Meng YG, Untch M, et al. Association between HER-2/neu and vascular endothelial growth factor expression predicts clinical outcome in primary breast cancer patients. Clin Cancer Res. 2004;10(5):1706-16.
15. Palmieri D, Bronder JL, Herring JM, et al. HER-2 overexpression increases the metastatic outgrowth of breast cancer cells in the brain. Cancer Res. 2007;67(9):4190-8.
16. Lin NU, Claus E, Sohl J, et al. Sites of distant recurrence and clinical outcomes in patients with metastatic triple-negative breast cancer: high incidence of central nervous system metastases. Cancer. 2008;113(10):2638-45.
17. Berghoff A, Bago-Horvath Z, De Vries C, et al. Brain metastases free survival differs between breast cancer subtypes. Br J Cancer. 2012;106(3):440-6.
18. Gaspar L, Scott C, Rotman M, et al. Recursive partitioning analysis (RPA) of prognostic factors in three Radiation Therapy Oncology Group (RTOG) brain metastases trials. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1997;37(4):745-51.
19. Sperduto PW, Kased N, Roberge D, et al. Summary report on the graded prognostic assessment: an accurate and facile diagnosis-specific tool to estimate survival for patients with brain metastases. J Clin Oncol. 2012;30(4):419-25.
20. Sperduto PW, Kased N, Roberge D, et al. Effect of tumor subtype on survival and the graded prognostic assessment for patients with breast cancer and brain metastases. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2012;82(5):2111-7.
21. Weissman DE. Glucocorticoid treatment for brain metastases and epidural spinal cord compression: a review. J Clin Oncol. 1988;6(3):543-51.
22. Lutterbach J, Bartelt S, Stancu E, et al. Patients with brain metastases: hope for recursive partitioning analysis (RPA) class 3. Radiother Oncol. 2002;63(3):339-45.
23. Broadbent AM, Hruby G, Tin MM, et al. Survival following whole brain radiation treatment for cerebral metastases: an audit of 474 patients. Radiother Oncol. 2004;71(3):259-65.
24. Eichler AF, Loeffler JS. Multidisciplinary management of brain metastases. Oncologist. 2007;12(7):884-98.
25. Khuntia D, Brown P, Li J, et al. Whole-brain radiotherapy in the management of brain metastasis. J Clin Oncol. 2006;24(8):1295-304.
26. Mayer M. A patient perspective on brain metastases in breast cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 2007;13(6):1623-4.
27. Kondziolka D, Niranjan A, Flickinger JC, et al. Radiosurgery with or without whole-brain radiotherapy for brain metastases: the patients' perspective regarding complications. Am J Clin Oncol. 2005;28(2):173-9.
28. Bachelot T, Romieu G, Campone M, et al. LANDSCAPE: an FNCLCC phase II study with lapatinib (L) and capecitabine (C) in patients with brain metastases (BM) from HER2-positive (+) metastatic breast cancer (MBC) before whole-brain radiotherapy (WBR) [abstract]. J Clin Oncol. 2011;29(Suppl. 15):509.
29. Feyer P, Sautter-Bihl ML, Budach W, et al. DEGRO practical guidelines for palliative radiotherapy of breast cancer patients: brain metastases and leptomeningeal carcinomatosis. Strahlenther Onkol. 2010;186(2):63-9.
30. Vecht CJ, Hovestadt A, Verbiest HB, et al. Dose-effect relationship of dexamethasone on Karnofsky performance in metastatic brain tumors: a randomized study of doses of 4, 8, and 16 mg per day. Neurology. 1994;44(4):675-80.
31. Rades D, Panzner A, Dziggel L, et al. Dose-escalation of whole-brain radiotherapy for brain metastasis in patients with a favorable survival prognosis. Cancer. 2012;118(15):3852-9.
32. Nieder C, Nestle U, Niewald M, et al. Accelerated radiotherapy for brain metastases. Radiother Oncol. 1997;45(1):17-22.
33. Niwinska A, Murawska M, Pogoda K. Breast cancer brain metastases: differences in survival depending on biological subtype, RPA RTOG prognostic class and systemic treatment after whole-brain radiotherapy (WBRT). Ann Oncol. 2010;21(5):942-8.
34. Pease NJ, Edwards A, Moss LJ. Effectiveness of whole brain radiotherapy in the treatment of brain metastases: a systematic review. Palliat Med. 2005;19(4):288-99.
35. Patil CG, Pricola K, Garg SK, et al. Whole brain radiation therapy (WBRT) alone versus WBRT and radiosurgery for the treatment of brain metastases. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;(6):CD006121.
36. Hendrickson FR, Lee MS, Larson M, et al. The influence of surgery and radiation therapy on patients with brain metastases. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1983;9(5):623-7.
37. Mut M. Surgical treatment of brain metastasis: a review. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2012;114(1):1-8.
38. Rades D, Schild SE. Do patients with a limited number of brain metastases need whole-brain radiotherapy in addition to radiosurgery? Strahlenther Onkol. 2012 Aug; 188 (8): 702-6.
39. Tsao MN, Lloyd N, Wong RK, et al. Whole brain radiotherapy for the treatment of newly diagnosed multiple brain metastases. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;(4):CD003869.
40. Bartsch R, Berghoff A, Pluschnig U, et al. Impact of anti-HER2 therapy on overall survival in HER2-overexpressing breast cancer patients with brain metastases. Br J Cancer. 2012;106(1):25-31.
41. Bartsch R, Rottenfusser A, Wenzel C, et al. Trastuzumab prolongs overall survival in patients with brain metastases from HER2 positive breast cancer. J Neurooncol. 2007;85(3):311-7.
42. Lower EE, Drosick DR, Blau R, et al. Increased rate of brain metastasis with trastuzumab therapy not associated with impaired survival. Clin Breast Cancer. 2003;4(2):114-9.
43. Kirsch DG, Ledezma CJ, Mathews CS, et al. Survival after brain metastases from breast cancer in the trastuzumab era. J Clin Oncol. 2005;23(9):2114-6 (author reply 2116-7).
44. Metro G, Foglietta J, Russillo M, et al. Clinical outcome of patients with brain metastases from HER2-positive breast cancer treated with lapatinib and capecitabine. Ann Oncol. 2011;22(3):625-30.
45. Preusser M, Capper D, Ilhan-Mutlu A, et al. Brain metastases: pathobiology and emerging targeted therapies. Acta Neuropathol. 2012;123(2):205-22.
46. Front D, Israel O, Kohn S, et al. The blood-tissue barrier of human brain tumors: correlation of scintigraphic and ultrastructural findings: concise communication. J Nucl Med. 1984;25(4):461-5.
47. Bertossi M, Virgintino D, Maiorano E, et al. Ultrastructural and morphometric investigation of human brain capillaries in normal and peritumoral tissues. Ultrastruct Pathol. 1997;21(1):41-9.
48. Gerstner ER, Fine RL. Increased permeability of the blood-brain barrier to chemotherapy in metastatic brain tumors: establishing a treatment paradigm. J Clin Oncol. 2007;25(16):2306-12.
49. Zhang RD, Price JE, Fujimaki T, et al. Differential permeability of the blood-brain barrier in experimental brain metastases produced by human neoplasms implanted into nude mice. Am J Pathol. 1992;141(5):1115-24.
50. Dietrich WD, Busto R, Halley M, et al. The importance of brain temperature in alterations of the blood-brain barrier following cerebral ischemia. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 1990;49(5):486-97.
51. Cordon-Cardo C, O'Brien JP, Boccia J, et al. Expression of the multidrug resistance gene product (P-glycoprotein) in human normal and tumor tissues. J Histochem Cytochem. 1990;38(9):1277-87.
52. Gallo JM, Li S, Guo P, et al. The effect of P-glycoprotein on paclitaxel brain and brain tumor distribution in mice. Cancer Res. 2003;63(16):5114-7.
53. Yonemori K, Tsuta K, Ono M, et al. Disruption of the blood brain barrier by brain metastases of triple-negative and basal-type breast cancer but not HER2/neu-positive breast cancer. Cancer. 2010;116(2):302-8.
54. Rosner D, Nemoto T, Lane WW. Chemotherapy induces regression of brain metastases in breast carcinoma. Cancer. 1986;58(4):832-9.
55. Boogerd W, Dalesio O, Bais EM, et al. Response of brain metastases from breast cancer to systemic chemotherapy. Cancer. 1992;69(4):972-80.
56. Ekenel M, Hormigo AM, Peak S, et al. Capecitabine therapy of central nervous system metastases from breast cancer. J Neurooncol. 2007;85(2):223-7.
57. Fabi A, Vidiri A, Ferretti G, et al. Dramatic regression of multiple brain metastases from breast cancer with capecitabine: another arrow at the bow? Cancer Invest. 2006;24(4):466-8.
58. Anders C, Adamo B, Walsh M, et al. Pharmacokinetic disposition of PEGylated liposomal doxorubicin compared with non-liposomal doxorubicin in an intracranial breast cancer murine model (abstract). Cancer Res. 2011;71(Suppl. 24):P4-17-04. 34th annual CTRC-AACR San Antonio breast cancer symposium; 6-10 Dec 2011, San Antonio (TX).
59. Lockman PR, Mittapalli RK, Taskar KS, et al. Heterogeneous blood-tumor barrier permeability determines drug efficacy in experimental brain metastases of breast cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 2010;16(23):5664-78.
60. Newlands ES, Stevens MF, Wedge SR, et al. Temozolomide: a review of its discovery, chemical properties, pre-clinical development and clinical trials. Cancer Treat Rev. 1997;23(1):35-61.
61. Stupp R, Mason WP, van den Bent MJ, et al. Radiotherapy plus concomitant and adjuvant temozolomide for glioblastoma. N Engl J Med. 2005;352(10):987-96.
62. Christodoulou C, Bafaloukos D, Kosmidis P, et al. Phase II study of temozolomide in heavily pretreated cancer patients with brain metastases. Ann Oncol. 2001;12(2):249-54.
63. Dziadziuszko R, Ardizzoni A, Postmus PE, et al. Temozolomide in patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer with and without brain metastases: a phase II study of the EORTC Lung Cancer Group (08965). Eur J Cancer. 2003;39(9):1271-6.
64. Giorgio CG, Giuffrida D, Pappalardo A, et al. Oral temozolomide in heavily pre-treated brain metastases from non-small cell lung cancer: phase II study. Lung Cancer. 2005;50(2):247-54.
65. Siena S, Crino L, Danova M, et al. Dose-dense temozolomide regimen for the treatment of brain metastases from melanoma, breast cancer, or lung cancer not amenable to surgery or radiosurgery: a multicenter phase II study. Ann Oncol. 2010;21(3):655-61.
66. Rivera E, Meyers C, Groves M, et al. Phase I study of capecitabine in combination with temozolomide in the treatment of patients with brain metastases from breast carcinoma. Cancer. 2006;107(6):1348-54.
67. Murphy C, Nulsen B, Rump M, et al. Phase II trial of patupilone in patients (pts) with breast cancer brain metastases (BCBM) progressing or recurring after whole brain radiotherapy (WBXRT) (abstract no. 234). ASCO breast cancer symposium, 8-10 Oct 2009, San Francisco (CA).
68. Lassman AB, Abrey LE, Shah GD, et al. Systemic high-dose intravenous methotrexate for central nervous system metastases. J Neurooncol. 2006;78(3):255-60.
69. Antonadou D, Paraskevaidis M, Sarris G, et al. Phase II randomized trial of temozolomide and concurrent radiotherapy in patients with brain metastases. J Clin Oncol. 2002;20(17):3644-50.
70. Verger E, Gil M, Yaya R, et al. Temozolomide and concomitant whole brain radiotherapy in patients with brain metastases: a phase II randomized trial. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2005;61(1):185-91.
71. Bartsch R, De Vries C, Pluschnig U, et al. Predicting for activity of second-line trastuzumab-based therapy in HER2-positive advanced breast cancer. BMC Cancer. 2009;9:367.
72. Slamon DJ, Leyland-Jones B, Shak S, et al. Use of chemotherapy plus a monoclonal antibody against HER2 for metastatic breast cancer that overexpresses HER2. N Engl J Med. 2001;344(11):783-92.
73. Pestalozzi BC, Brignoli S. Trastuzumab in CSF. J Clin Oncol. 2000;18(11):2349-51.
74. Lin NU, Winer EP. Brain metastases: the HER2 paradigm. Clin Cancer Res. 2007;13(6):1648-55.
75. Geyer CE, Forster J, Lindquist D, et al. Lapatinib plus capecitabine for HER2-positive advanced breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 2006;355(26):2733-43.
76. ® (lapatinib) tablets: full prescribing information (online). http://us.gsk.com/products/assets/us-tykerb.pdf. Accessed 22 Apr 2012.
77. Lin NU, Dieras V, Paul D, et al. Multicenter phase II study of lapatinib in patients with brain metastases from HER2-positive breast cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 2009;15(4):1452-9.
78. Lin NU, Eierman W, Greil R, et al. Randomized phase II study of lapatinib plus capecitabine or lapatinib plus topotecan for patients with HER2-positive breast cancer brain metastases. J Neurooncol. 2011;105(3):613-20.
79. Taskar KS, Rudraraju V, Mittapalli RK, et al. Lapatinib distribution in HER2 overexpressing experimental brain metastases of breast cancer. Pharm Res. 2012;29(3):770-81.
80. Blackwell KL, Burstein HJ, Storniolo AM, et al. Randomized study of lapatinib alone or in combination with trastuzumab in women with ErbB2-positive, trastuzumab-refractory metastatic breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2010;28(7):1124-30.
81. Baselga J, Bradbury I, Eidtmann H, et al. Lapatinib with trastuzumab for HER2-positive early breast cancer (NeoALTTO): a randomised, open-label, multicentre, phase 3 trial. Lancet. 2012;379(9816):633-40.
82. Gianni L, Llado A, Bianchi G, et al. Open-label, phase II, multicenter, randomized study of the efficacy and safety of two dose levels of pertuzumab, a human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 dimerization inhibitor, in patients with human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-negative metastatic breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2010;28(7):1131-7.
83. Baselga J, Cortes J, Kim SB, et al. Pertuzumab plus trastuzumab plus docetaxel for metastatic breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 2012;366(2):109-19.
84. Folkman J, Klagsbrun M. Angiogenic factors. Science. 1987;235(4787):442- 7.
85. Friedman HS, Prados MD, Wen PY, et al. Bevacizumab alone and in combination with irinotecan in recurrent glioblastoma. J Clin Oncol. 2009;27(28):4733-40.
86. Gordon MS, Margolin K, Talpaz M, et al. Phase I safety and pharmacokinetic study of recombinant human anti-vascular endothelial growth factor in patients with advanced cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2001;19(3):843-50.
87. Besse B, Lasserre SF, Compton P, et al. Bevacizumab safety in patients with central nervous system metastases. Clin Cancer Res. 2010;16(1):269-78.
88. Socinski MA, Langer CJ, Huang JE, et al. Safety of bevacizumab in patients with non-small-cell lung cancer and brain metastases. J Clin Oncol. 2009;27(31):5255-61.
89. Labidi SI, Bachelot T, Ray-Coquard I, et al. Bevacizumab and paclitaxel for breast cancer patients with central nervous system metastases: a case series. Clin Breast Cancer. 2009;9(2):118-21.
90. Lu Y, Chen W, Lin C, et al. Bevacizumab, etoposide, and cisplatin (BEEP) in brain metastases of breast cancer progressing from radiotherapy: results of the first stage of a multicenter phase II study (abstract). J Clin Oncol. 2012;30(Suppl.);1079.
91. Miller K, Wang M, Gralow J, et al. Paclitaxel plus bevacizumab versus paclitaxel alone for metastatic breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 2007;357(26):2666-76.
92. De Braganca KC, Janjigian YY, Azzoli CG, et al. Efficacy and safety of bevacizumab in active brain metastases from non-small cell lung cancer. J Neurooncol. 2010;100(3):443-7.
93. Mathews MS, Linskey ME, Hasso AN, et al. The effect of bevacizumab (Avastin) on neuroimaging of brain metastases. Surg Neurol. 2008;70(6):649-52 (discussion 653).
94. Leenders WP, Kusters B, Verrijp K, et al. Antiangiogenic therapy of cerebral melanoma metastases results in sustained tumor progression via vessel co-option. Clin Cancer Res. 2004;10(18 Pt 1):6222-30.
95. Kienast Y, von Baumgarten L, Fuhrmann M, et al. Real-time imaging reveals the single steps of brain metastasis formation. Nat Med. 2010;16(1):116-22.
96. Early Breast Cancer Trialists' Collaborative Group (EBCTCG). Effects of chemotherapy and hormonal therapy for early breast cancer on recurrence and 15-year survival: an overview of the randomised trials. Lancet. 2005;365(9472):1687-717.
97. Lien EA, Wester K, Lonning PE, et al. Distribution of tamoxifen and metabolites into brain tissue and brain metastases in breast cancer patients. Br J Cancer. 1991;63(4):641-5.
98. Chen J, Balmaceda C, Bruce JN, et al. Tamoxifen paradoxically decreases paclitaxel deposition into cerebrospinal fluid of brain tumor patients. J Neurooncol. 2006;76(1):85-92.
99. Fine RL, Chen J, Balmaceda C, et al. Randomized study of paclitaxel and tamoxifen deposition into human brain tumors: implications for the treatment of metastatic brain tumors. Clin Cancer Res. 2006;12(19):5770-6.
100. Iusuf D, Teunissen SF, Wagenaar E, et al. P-glycoprotein (ABCB1) transports the primary active tamoxifen metabolites endoxifen and 4-hydroxytamoxifen and restricts their brain penetration. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2011;337(3):710-7.
101. Lin N, Ramakrishna N, Younger W, et al. Phase I study of lapatinib (L) in combination with whole-brain radiation therapy (WBRT) in patients (pts) with brain metastases from HER2-positive breast cancer (abstract). J Clin Oncol. 2010;28(Suppl. 15):1154.
102. Chargari C, Idrissi HR, Pierga JY, et al. Preliminary results of whole brain radiotherapy with concurrent trastuzumab for treatment of brain metastases in breast cancer patients. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2011;81(3):631-6.
103. Kocher M, Soffietti R, Abacioglu U, et al. Adjuvant whole-brain radiotherapy versus observation after radiosurgery or surgical resection of one to three cerebral metastases: results of the EORTC 22952-26001 study. J Clin Oncol. 2011;29(2):134-41.
104. Cameron D, Casey M, Press M, et al. A phase III randomized comparison of lapatinib plus capecitabine versus capecitabine alone in women with advanced breast cancer that has progressed on trastuzumab: updated efficacy and biomarker analyses. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2008;112(3):533-43.
105. Duchnowska R, Biernat W, Szostakiewicz B, et al. Correlation between quantitative HER-2 protein expression and risk for brain metastases in HER-2+ advanced breast cancer patients receiving trastuzumab-containing therapy. Oncologist. 2012;17(1):26-35.
106. Duchnowska R, Jassem J, Goswami C, et al. 13-gene signature to predict rapid development of brain metastases in patients with HER2-positive advanced breast cancer (abstract). J Clin Oncol. 2012;30(Suppl. 15):505.
107. Gril B, Palmieri D, Qian Y, et al. Pazopanib reveals a role for tumor cell B-Raf in the prevention of HER2+ breast cancer brain metastasis. Clin Cancer Res. 2011;17(1):142-53.
108. de Azevedo CR, Cruz MR, Chinen LT, et al. Meningeal carcinomatosis in breast cancer: prognostic factors and outcome. J Neurooncol. 2011;104(2):565-72.
109. Gauthier H, Guilhaume MN, Bidard FC, et al. Survival of breast cancer patients with meningeal carcinomatosis. Ann Oncol. 2010;21(11):2183-7.
110. Rakha EA, El-Sayed ME, Green AR, et al. Prognostic markers in triple-negative breast cancer. Cancer. 2007;109(1):25-32.
111. Gani C, Muller AC, Eckert F, et al. Outcome after whole brain radiotherapy alone in intracranial leptomeningeal carcinomatosis from solid tumors. Strahlenther Onkol. 2012;188(2):148-53.
112. Chamberlain MC. Neoplastic meningitis. Oncologist. 2008;13(9):967-77.
113. Chamberlain MC, Kormanik PR. Carcinomatous meningitis secondary to breast cancer: predictors of response to combined modality therapy. J Neurooncol. 1997;35(1):55-64.
114. Jaeckle KA, Phuphanich S, Bent MJ, et al. Intrathecal treatment of neoplastic meningitis due to breast cancer with a slow-release formulation of cytarabine. Br J Cancer. 2001;84(2):157-63.
115. Kim S, Chatelut E, Kim JC, et al. Extended CSF cytarabine exposure following intrathecal administration of DTC 101. J Clin Oncol. 1993;11(11):2186-93.
116. Grossman SA, Finkelstein DM, Ruckdeschel JC, et al. Randomized prospective comparison of intraventricular methotrexate and thiotepa in patients with previously untreated neoplastic meningitis: Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group. J Clin Oncol. 1993;11(3):561-9.
117. Glantz MJ, Jaeckle KA, Chamberlain MC, et al. A randomized controlled trial comparing intrathecal sustained-release cytarabine (DepoCyt) to intrathecal methotrexate in patients with neoplastic meningitis from solid tumors. Clin Cancer Res. 1999;5(11):3394-402.
118. Rogers LR, Remer SE, Tejwani S. Durable response of breast cancer leptomeningeal metastasis to capecitabine monotherapy. Neuro Oncol. 2004;6(1):63-4.
119. Boogerd W, Dorresteijn LD, van Der Sande JJ, et al. Response of leptomeningeal metastases from breast cancer to hormonal therapy. Neurology. 2000;55(1):117-9.
120. Boogerd W, van den Bent MJ, Koehler PJ, et al. The relevance of intraventricular chemotherapy for leptomeningeal metastasis in breast cancer: a randomised study. Eur J Cancer. 2004;40(18):2726-33.
121. Bokstein F, Lossos A, Siegal T. Leptomeningeal metastases from solid tumors: a comparison of two prospective series treated with and without intra-cerebrospinal fluid chemotherapy. Cancer. 1998;82(9):1756-63.
122. Oliveira M, Braga S, Passos-Coelho JL, et al. Complete response in HER2+ leptomeningeal carcinomatosis from breast cancer with intrathecal trastuzumab. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2011;127(3):841-4.
123. Mego M, Sycova-Mila Z, Obertova J, et al. Intrathecal administration of trastuzumab with cytarabine and methotrexate in breast cancer patients with leptomeningeal carcinomatosis. Breast. 2011;20(5):478-80.
124. Laufman LR, Forsthoefel KF. Use of intrathecal trastuzumab in a patient with carcinomatous meningitis (letter). Clin Breast Cancer. 2001;2(3):235.
125. Stemmler HJ, Mengele K, Schmitt M, et al. Intrathecal trastuzumab (Herceptin) and methotrexate for meningeal carcinomatosis in HER2-overexpressing metastatic breast cancer: a case report. Anticancer Drugs. 2008;19(8):832-6.
126. Platini C, Long J, Walter S. Meningeal carcinomatosis from breast cancer treated with intrathecal trastuzumab. Lancet Oncol. 2006;7(9):778-80.
127. Colozza M, Minenza E, Gori S, et al. Extended survival of a HER-2-positive metastatic breast cancer patient with brain metastases also treated with intrathecal trastuzumab. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol. 2009;63(6):1157-9.