Gateway to doping? Supplement use in the context of preferred competitive situations, doping attitude, beliefs, and norms

Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports

Volumn 23, Issue 2, 2013, Pages 244-252

  Backhouse, S H ^a   Whitaker, L ^a   Petroczi A ^b,c  

^a LEEDS METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^b KINGSTON UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^c UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Anti doping; Gateway theory; Integrated social cognitive approach; Nutrition education; Nutritional supplements; Performance enhancing substances

Indexed keywords

ADULT; ARTICLE; ATHLETE; ATTITUDE; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; DOPING; FEMALE; HUMAN; MALE; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; QUESTIONNAIRE; SELF REPORT; SEX DIFFERENCE; STATISTICS;

ATHLETES; ATTITUDE; DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS; DOPING IN SPORTS; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; QUESTIONNAIRES; SELF REPORT; SEX FACTORS; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 84875623843     PISSN: 09057188     EISSN: 16000838     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2011.01374.x     Document Type: Article

References (77)

1. Ajzen I, Fishbein M . Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1980.
2. Ajzen I, Madden T . Prediction of goal-directed behavior: attitudes, intentions, and perceived behavioral control. J Exp Soc Psychol 1986: 22: 453-474.
3. Backhouse SH, Atkin A, McKenna J, Robinson S . International literature review: attitudes, behaviours, knowledge and education - drugs in sport: past, present and future. Montreal: World Anti-Doping Agency, 2007: 145.
4. Bartee RT, Grandjean B, Dunn MS, Perko MA, Eddy JM, Wang MQ . Predictors of dietary supplement use among adolescent athletes. Pediatr Exerc Sci 2004: 16: 250-264.
5. Baume N, Mahler N, Kamber M, Mangin P, Saugy M . Research of stimulants and anabolic steroids in dietary supplements. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2006: 16: 41-48.
6. Bloodworth A, McNamee M . Clean Olympians? Doping and anti-doping: the views of talented young British athletes. Int J Drug Policy 2010: 21: 276-282.
7. Boys A, Marsden J, Griffiths P, Fountain J, Stillwell G, Strang J . Substance use amongst young people: the relationship between perceived functions and intentions. Addiction 1999: 94: 1043-1050.
8. Boys A, Marsden J, Strang J . Understanding reasons for drug use among young people: a functional perspective. Health Educ Res 2001: 16: 457-469.
9. Braun H, Koehler K, Geyer H, Kleiner J, Mester J, Schanzer W . Dietary supplement use among elite young German athletes. Int J Sports Nutr Exerc Metab 2009: 19: 97-109.
10. Breivik G . Doping games: a game theoretical exploration of doping. Int Rev Soc Sport 1992: 27: 235-252.
11. Breivik G, Hanstad DV, Loland S . Attitudes towards use of performance-enhancing substances and body modification techniques. A comparison between elite athletes and the general population. Sport Soc 2009: 12: 737 - 754.
12. Burke LM . Practical sports nutrition. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2007.
13. Burns RD, Schiller MR, Merrick MA, Wolf KN . Intercollegiate student athlete use of nutritional supplements and the role of athletic trainers and dietitians in nutrition counseling. J Am Diet Assoc 2004: 104: 246-249.
14. Calfee R, Fadale P . Popular ergogenic drugs and supplements in young athletes. Pediatrics 2006: 117: e577-e589.
15. Choo T, Roh S, Robinson M . Assessing the "gateway hypothesis" among middle and high school students in Tennessee. J Drug Issues 2008: 38: 467-492.
16. Cohen PA . American roulette - contaminated dietary supplements. N Engl J Med 2009: 361: 1523-1525.
17. Collins R, Kalman D . Effect of government regulation on the evolution of sports nutrition. In: Grenwood M, Kalman D, Antonio J, eds. Nutritional supplements in sports and exercise. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press, 2009: 3-31.
18. Corrigan B, Kazlauskas R . Medication use in athletes selected for doping control at the sydney olympics. Clin J Sport Med 2000: 13: 33-40.
19. Dascombe BJ, Karunaratna M, Cartoon J, Fergie B, Goodman C . Nutritional supplementation habits and perceptions of elite athletes within a state-based sporting institute. J Sci Med Sport 2010: 13: 274-280.
20. Degenhardt L, Dierker L, Chiu WT, Medina-Mora ME, Neumark Y, Sampson N, Alonso J, Angermeyer M, Anthony JC, Bruffaerts R, de Girolamo G, de Graaf R, Gureje O, Karam AN, Kostyuchenko S, Lee S, Lépine JP, Levinson D, Nakamura Y, Posada-Villa J, Stein D, Wells JE, Kessler RC . Evaluating the drug use "gateway" theory using cross-national data: consistency and associations of the order of initiation of drug use among participants in the WHO World Mental Health Surveys. Drug Alcohol Depend 2010: 108: 84-97.
21. Dodge TL, Jaccard JJ . The effect of high school sports participation on the use of performance-enhancing substances in young adulthood. J Adolesc Health 2006: 39: 367-373.
22. Dunn MS, Eddy JM, Wang MQ, Nagy S, Perko MA, Bartee RT . The influence of significant others on attitudes, subjective norms and intentions regarding dietary supplement use among adolescent athletes. Adolescence 2001: 36: 583-591.
23. Dunn M, Mazanov J, Sitharthan G . Predicting future anabolic-androgenic steroid use intentions with current substance use: findings from an internet-based survey. Clin J Sports Med 2009: 19: 222-227.
24. Erdman KA, Fung TS, Reimer RA . Influence of performance level on dietary supplementation in elite Canadian athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2006: 38: 349-356.
25. Fainaru-Wada M, Williams L . Game of shadows: Barry bonds, BALCO, and the steroids scandal that rocked professional sports. New York: Gotham Books, 2006.
26. Fergusson DM, Boden JM, Horwood LJ . Cannabis use and other illicit drug use: testing the cannabis gateway hypothesis. Addiction 2006: 101: 556-569.
27. Froiland K, Koszewski W, Hingst J, Kopecky L . Nutritional supplement use among college athletes and their sources of information. Int J Sports Nutr Exerc Metab 2004: 14: 104-120.
28. Gerrard M, Gibbons FX, Houlihan AE, Stock ML, Pomery EA . A dual-process approach to health risk decision making: the prototype willingness model. Dev Rev 2008: 28: 29-61.
29. Geyer H, Parr MK, Koehler K, Mareck U, Schanzer W, Thevis M . Nutritional supplements cross-contaminated and faked with doping substances. J Mass Spectrom 2008: 43: 892-902.
30. Goldberg L, MacKinnon DP, Elliot DL, Moe EL, Clarke G, Cheong J . The adolescents training and learning to avoid steroids program. Preventing drug use and promoting health behaviours. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2000: 154: 332-338.
31. Hagger MS, Chatzisarantis NLD . First- and higher-order models of attitudes, normative influence, and perceived behavioural control in the theory of planned behaviour. Br J Soc Psychol 2005: 44 (4): 513-535.
32. Hoffman JR, Faigenbaum AD, Ratamess NA, Ross R, Kang J, Tenenbaum G . Nutritional supplementation and anabolic steroid use in adolescents. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2008: 40: 15-24.
33. de Hon O, Coumans B . The continuing story of nutritional supplements and doping infractions. Br J Sports Med 2007: 41: 800-805.
34. Honour JW . The fight for fair play. Nature 2004: 430: 143-144.
35. Huang S, Johnson K, Pipe AL . The use of dietary supplements and medications by Canadian athletes at the Atlanta and Sydney Olympic games. Clin J Sport Med 2006: 116(1): 27-33.
36. Kandel DB . Examining the gateway hypothesis stages and pathways of drug involvement. In: Kandel DB, ed. Stages and pathways of drug involvement: Examining the gateway hypothesis. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2002: 3-15.
37. Kujala UM, Sarna S, Kaprio J . Use of medications and dietary supplements in later years among male former top-level athletes. Arch Intern Med 2003: 163: 1064-1068.
38. Lippi G, Franchini M, Guidi GC . Doping in competition or doping in sport? Br Med Bull 2008: 86: 95-107.
39. Loewenstein GF, Weber EU, Hsee CK, Welch N . Risk as feelings. Psychol Bull 2001: 127: 267-286.
40. Lucidi F, Zelli A, Mallia L, Grano C, Russo PM, Violani C . The social-cognitive mechanisms regulating adolescents' use of doping substances. J Sports Sci 2008: 26: 447-456.
41. Manore M, Barr SI, Butterfield GE . Position of the American dietetics association, dietitians of Canada, and the American college of sports medicine: nutrition and athletic performance. J Am Diet Assoc 2000: 100: 1543-1556.
42. Maughan RJ, Depiesse F, Geyer H . The use of dietary supplements by athletes. J Sports Sci 2007: 25: S103-S113.
43. Mayet A, Legleye S, Chau N, Falissard B . The mediation role of licit drugs in the influence of socializing on cannabis use among adolescents: a quantitative approach. Addict Behav 2010: 35: 890-895.
44. Mazanov J, Petroczi A, Bingham J, Holloway A . Towards an empirical model of performance enhancing supplement use: a pilot study among high performance UK athletes. J Sci Med Sport 2008: 11: 185-190.
45. Molinero O, Marquez S . Use of nutritional supplements in sports: risks, knowledge, and behavioural-related factors. Nutrición Hospitalaria 2009: 24: 128-134.
46. Nieper A . Nutritional supplement practices in UK junior track and field athletes. Br J Sports Med 2005: 39: 645-649.
47. Papadopoulos FC, Skalkidis I, Parkkari J, Petridou E . Doping use among tertiary education students in six developed countries. Eur J Epidemiol 2006: 21: 307-313.
48. Peretti-Watel P, Guagliardo V, Verger P, Mignon P, Pruvost J, Obadia Y . Attitudes toward doping and recreational drug use among French elite student athletes. Sociol Sport J 2004: 21: 1-17.
49. Perko M . Development of a theory-based instrument regarding adolescent athletes and dietary supplements. Am J Health Stud 1999: 15: 71-80.
50. Perko M, Bartee R, Dunn M, Wang M, Eddy JM . Giving new meaning to the term "taking one for the team:" influences on the use/non-use of dietary supplements among adolescent athletes. Am J Health Stud 2000: 16: 99-106.
51. Petróczi A, Aidman E . Psychological drivers in doping: the life-cycle model of performance enhancement. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2008: 3: 7.
52. Petróczi A, Aidman E . Measuring explicit attitude toward doping: review of the psychometric properties of the Performance Enhancement Attitude Scale. Psychol Sport Exerc 2009: 10: 390-396.
53. Petróczi A, Naughton DP, Mazanov J, Holloway A, Bingham J . Performance enhancement with supplements: incongruence between rationale and practice. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2007: 4: 19.
54. Petróczi A, Mazanov J, Nepusz T, Backhouse SH, Naughton DP . Comfort in big numbers: does over-estimation of doping prevalence in others indicate self-involvement? J Occup Med Toxicol 2008a: 3: 19.
55. Petróczi A, Naughton DP, Pearce G, Bailey R, Bloodworth A, McNamee M . Nutritional supplement use by elite young UK athletes: fallacies of advice regarding efficacy. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2008b: 5: 22.
56. Petróczi A, Aidman EV, Nepusz T . Capturing doping attitudes by self-report declarations and implicit assessment: a methodology study. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2008c: 3: 9.
57. Petróczi A, Taylor G, Naughton DP . Mission impossible? Regulatory and enforcement issues to ensure safety of dietary supplements. Food Chem Toxicol 2011: 49: 393-402.
58. Rees CR, Zarco EPT, Lewis DK . The steroids/sports supplements connection: pragmatism and sensation-seeking in the attitudes and behavior of JHS and HS students on long island. J Drug Educ 2008: 38: 329-349.
59. Ridenour TA, Cottler LB, Compton WM, Spitznagel EL, Cunningham-Williams RM . Is there a progression from abuse disorders to dependence disorders? Addiction 2003: 98: 635-644.
60. Scofield DE, Unruh S . Dietary supplement use among adolescent athletes in central Nebraska and their sources of information. J Strength Cond Res 2006: 20: 452-455.
61. de Silva A, Samarasinghe Y, Senanayake D, Lanerolle P . Dietary supplement intake in national-level Sri Lankan athletes. Int J Sports Nutr Exerc Metab 2010: 20: 15-20.
62. Strelan P, Boeckmann RJ . Why drug testing in elite sport does not work: perceptual deterrence theory and the role of personal moral beliefs. J Appl Soc Psychol 2006: 36: 2909-2934.
63. Striegel H, Simon P, Wurster C, Niess AM, Ulrich R . The use of nutritional supplements among masters athletes. Int J Sports Med 2006: 27: 236-241.
64. Suzic Lazic J, Dikic N, Radivojevic N, Mazic S, Radovanovic D, Mitrovic N, Lazic M, Zivanic S, Suzic S . Dietary supplements and medications in elite sport - polypharmacy or real need? Scand J Med Sci Sports 2011: 21: 260-267.
65. Taioli E . Use of permitted drugs in Italian professional soccer players. Br J Sports Med 2007: 41: 439-441.
66. Tscholl P, Alonso JM, Dolle G, Junge A, Dvorak J . The use of drugs and nutritional supplements in top-level track and field athletes. Am J Sports Med 2010: 38: 133-140.
67. Tscholl P, Junge A, Dvorak J . The use of medication and nutritional supplements during FIFA World Cups 2002 and 2006. Br J Sports Med 2008: 42: 725-730.
68. Tsitsimpikou C, Jamurtas A, Fitch K, Papalexis P, Tsarouhas K . Medication use by athletes during the Athens 2004 Paralympic Games. Br J Sports Med 2009a: 43: 1062-1066.
69. Tsitsimpikou C, Tsiokanos A, Tsarouhas K, Schamasch P, Fitch KD, Valasiadis D, Jamurtas A . Medication use by athletes at the Athens 2004 Summer Olympic Games. Clin J Sport Med 2009b: 19: 33-38.
70. Uvacsek M, Nepusz T, Naughton DP, Mazanov J, Ranky MZ, Petroczi A . Self-admitted behavior and perceived use of performance-enhancing vs psychoactive drugs among competitive athletes. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2011: 21: 224-234.
71. Van Thuyne W, Van Eenoo P, Delbeke FT . Nutritional supplements: prevalence of use and contamination with doping agents. Nutr Res Rev 2006: 19: 147-158.
72. Waddington I, Malcolm D, Roderick M, Naik R . Drug use in English professional football. Br J Sports Med 2005: 39: e18.
73. Wells JE, McGee MA . Violations of the usual sequence of drug initiation: prevalence and associations with the development of dependence in the New Zealand Mental Health Survey. J Stud Alcohol Drugs 2008: 69: 789-795.
74. Wichstrom L . Predictors of future anabolic androgenic steroid use. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2006: 38: 1578-1583.
75. Wiefferink CH, Detmar SB, Coumans B, Vogels T, Paulussen TG . Social psychological determinants of the use of performance-enhancing drugs by gym users. Health Education Research 2008: 23: 70-80.
76. Yussman SM, Wilson KM, Klein JD . Herbal products and their association with substance use in adolescents. J Adolesc Health 2006: 38: 395-400.
77. Ziegler PJ, Nelson JA, Jonnalagadda SS . Use of dietary supplements by elite figure skaters. Int J Sports Nutr Exerc Metab 2003: 13: 266-276.