Why drug testing in elite sport does not work: perceptual deterrence theory and the role of personal moral beliefs

Journal of Applied Social Psychology

Volumn 36, Issue 12, 2006, Pages 2909-2934

  Strelan, Peter ^a   Boeckmann, Robert J ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE   (Australia)

^b Center for Alaska Native Health   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 33750902762     PISSN: 00219029     EISSN: 15591816     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.0021-9029.2006.00135.x     Document Type: Article

References (62)

1. Adams, R. C., & Molloy, J. W. (1987). Essays about sport and values. Bristol, IN: Wyndham Hall.
2. Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179-211.
3. Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1977). Attitude-behavior relations: A theoretical analysis and review of empirical research. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 888-918.
4. Andenaes, J. (1952). General prevention: Illusion or reality? Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science, 43, 176-198.
5. Anshel, M. H. (1991). Cognitive-behavioral strategies for combating drug abuse in sport: Implications for coaches and sport psychology consultants. The Sport Psychologist, 5, 152-166.
6. Australian Sports Drug Agency. (1998). Australian Sports Commission antidoping policy. Retrieved May 30, 2003, from http://www.ausport.gov.au/ fulltext/1998/ascpub/drugpol
7. Australian Sports Drug Agency. (2001). Trends in drug testing. Retrieved November 19, 2001, from http://www.asda.org.au/trends.html
8. Bahrke, M. S., Yesalis, C., & Brower, K. J. (1998). Anabolic-androgenic steroid abuse and performance-enhancing drugs among adolescents. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 7, 821-838.
9. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
10. Baron, S. W., & Kennedy, L. W. (1998). Deterrence and homeless male street youths. Canadian Journal of Criminology, 40, 27-60.
11. Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
12. Barter, C., & Renold, E. (2000). "I wanna tell you a story": Exploring the application of vignettes in qualitative research with children and young people. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 3, 307-323.
13. Bita, N. (2002, April 14). Team dream genes. The Weekend Australian, p. 21.
14. Blasi, A. (1980). Bridging moral cognition and moral action: A critical review of the literature. Psychological Bulletin, 88, 1-45.
15. Bradley, G. V. (2003). Praise and blame and Robinson. Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology, 23, 8-21.
16. Bredemeier, B. J. (1995). Divergence in children's moral reasoning about issues in daily life and sport-specific contexts. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 26, 453-464.
17. Colby, A., Kohlberg, L., Gibbs, J., & Lieberman, M. (1983). A longitudinal study of moral judgment. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 48(1-2, Serial No. 200).
18. Cooper, A. (2002). Justin Charles has blunt message for players. Retrieved February 23, 2002, from http://www.afl.com.au/news/story
19. Cornish, D., & Clarke, R. (1986). The reasoning criminal: Rational choice perspectives on offending. New York: Springer-Verlag.
20. th ed.). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.
21. Dawson, R. T. (2000, October 3). The war on drugs in sport. BMC News and Views, pp. 1-3.
22. Finch, J. (1987). The vignette technique in survey research. Sociology, 21, 105-114.
23. Foglia, W. D. (1997). Perceptual deterrence and the mediating effect of internalized norms among inner-city teenagers. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 34, 414-443.
24. Goldberg, L., Elliot, D., MacKinnon, D., Moe, E., Clarke, G., & Lapin, A., et al. (1997). The ATLAS (Adolescents Training and Learning to Avoid Steroids) Program: Effects during two seasons. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 29, S293.
25. Grasmick, H. G., & Bursik, R. J. (1990). Conscience, significant others, and rational choice: Extending the deterrence model. Law and Society Review, 24, 837-861.
26. Grasmick, H. G., Bursik, R. J., & Arneklev, B. J. (1993). Reduction in drunk driving as a response to increased threats of shame, embarrassment, and legal sanctions. Criminology, 31, 41-65.
27. Grasmick, H. G., Bursik, R. J., & Kinsey, K. A. (1991). Shame and embarrassment as deterrents to non-compliance with the law: The case of an antilittering campaign. Environment and Behavior, 23, 233-251.
28. Growden, G. (2002). Tribunal to examine Tune drug case. Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved July 25, 2002, from http://rugbyheaven.smh.com.au/rugby/ trinations
29. Holmbeck, G. N. (1997). Toward terminological, conceptual, and statistical clarity in the study of mediators and moderators: Examples from the child-clinical and pediatric psychology literatures. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 117-125.
30. Kapernick, V. (2001). True Champions campaign. Canberra, Australia: Australian Sports Drug Agency.
31. McCaffrey, A. (2000). Pointing blame. ABC News. Retrieved August 14, 2002, from http://www.abcnews.go.com/sections/sport/dailynews
32. McGuire, W. J. (1985). Attitudes and attitude change. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 233-346). New York: Random House.
33. Moe, E., Goldberg, L., Elliot, D., & MacKinnon, D. (1998). Modification and replication of the ATLAS (Adolescents Training and Learning to Avoid Steroids) Program. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 30, S92.
34. Myers, R. S., & Roth, D. L. (1997). Perceived benefits of and barriers to exercise and stage of exercise adoption in young adults. Health Psychology, 16, 277-283.
35. Nagin, D., & Pogarsky, G. (2001). Integrating celerity, impulsivity, and extralegal sanction threats into a model of general deterrence: Theory and evidence. Criminology, 39, 865-892.
36. Paternoster, R. (1987). The deterrent effect of the perceived certainty and severity of punishment: A review of the evidence and issues. Justice Quarterly, 4, 173-217.
37. Paternoster, R. (1989). Decisions to participate in and desist from four types of common delinquency: Deterrence and the rational choice perspective. Law and Society Review, 23, 7-40.
38. Paternoster, R., & Simpson, S. (1996). Sanction threats and appeals to morality: Testing a rational choice model of corporate crime. Law and Society Review, 30, 549-583.
39. Piquero, A., & Paternoster, R. (1998). An application of Stafford and Warr's reconceptualization of deterrence to drinking and driving. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 35, 3-40.
40. Piquero, A., & Tibbetts, S. (1996). Specifying the direct and indirect effects of low self-control and situational factors in offender decision-making: Towards a more complete model of rational offending. Justice Quarterly, 13, 481-510.
41. Rest, J. R., & Thoma, S. J. (1985). Relation of moral judgment to formal education. Developmental Psychology, 21, 709-714.
42. Robinson, P. H., & Darley, J. M. (1997). The utility of desert. Northwestern University Law Review, 91, 453-499.
43. Rowe, G. (2002). Not every positive drug test indicates guilt. The Age. Retrieved May 5, 2002, from http://www.theage.com.au/2002/05/04
44. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78.
45. Schwartz, R. D., & Orleans, S. (1967). On legal sanctions. University of Chicago Law Review, 34, 274-300.
46. Shields, D. L. L., & Bredermeier, B. J. L. (1995). Character development and physical activity. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
47. Singbartl, G. (1994). Adverse events of erythropoietin in long-term and in acute or short-term treatment. Clinical Investigation, 72, 536-543.
48. Slusher, M. P., & Anderson, C. A. (1996). Using causal persuasive arguments to change beliefs and teach new information: The mediating role of explanation availability and evaluation bias in the acceptance of knowledge. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 110-122.
49. Snortum, J. R., & Berger, D. E. (1989). Drinking-driving compliance in the United States: Perceptions and behavior in 1983 and 1986. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 50, 306-319.
50. Sobel, M. E. (1982). Asymptotic intervals for indirect effects in structural equations models. In S. Leinhart (Ed.), Sociological methodology (pp. 290-312). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
51. Strelan, P., & Boeckmann, R. J. (2003). A new model for understanding performance-enhancing drug use by elite athletes. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 15, 176-183.
52. Sullivan, M. L., Martinez, C. M., Gennis, P., & Gallagher, E. J. (1998). The cardiac toxicity of anabolic steroids. Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases, 41, 1-15.
53. Thoma, S. J. (1986). Estimating gender differences in the comprehension and preferences of moral issues. Developmental Review, 6, 165-180.
54. Tyler, T. R. (1990). Why people obey laws. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
55. Wallace, J. D., Cuneo, R. C., Baxter, R., Orskov, H., Keay, N., & Pentecost, C., et al. (1999). Responses of the growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor axis to exercise, GH administration, and GH withdrawal in trained adult males: A potential test for GH abuse in sport. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 84, 3591-3601.
56. Wann, D. L., & Branscombe, N. R. (1993). Sports fans: Measuring degree of identification with their team. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 24, 1-17.
57. Wilkins, P. (2002). Rummans may face two-year drugs ban. Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved February 22, 2002, from http://www.smh.com.au/news/0202/22/ sport
58. Williams, K. R., & Hawkins, R. (1989). The meaning of arrest for wife assault. Criminology, 27, 163-181.
59. Williams, K. R., & Hawkins, R. (1992). Wife assault, costs of arrest, and the deterrence process. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 29, 293-310.
60. Wilson, W., & Derse, E. (2001). Doping in sport: The politics of drugs in the Olympic movement. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
61. World Anti-Doping Agency. (2002). World anti-doping code. Retrieved July 22, 2002, from http://www.wada-ama.org
62. Wright, S., Grogan, S., & Hunter, G. (2001). Body-builders' attitudes towards steroid use. Drugs Education, Prevention, and Policy, 8, 91-95.