Investigating cognitive pathways to psychopathology: Predicting depression and posttraumatic stress disorder from early responses after assault

Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy

Volumn 4, Issue 5, 2012, Pages 527-537

  Kleim, Birgit ^a,c   Ehlers, Anke ^a,d   Glucksman, Edward ^b  

^a KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b KING S COLLEGE HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^c UNIVERSITY OF ZURICH   (Switzerland)

^d UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

cognitive models; cognitive specificity; depression; posttraumatic stress disorder; structural equation model

Indexed keywords

EID: 84874052372     PISSN: 19429681     EISSN: 1942969X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0027006     Document Type: Article

References (71)

1. Abramson, L. Y., Alloy, L. B., Hogan, M. E., Whitehouse, W. G., Donovan, P., Rose, D. T., Raniere, D. (1999). Cognitive vulnerability to depression: Theory and evidence. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy: An International Quarterly, 13, 5-20.
2. Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, G. I., & Alloy, L. B. (1989). Hopelessness depression: A theory-based subtype of depression. Psychological Review, 96, 358-372. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.96.2.358
3. Abramson, L. Y., Seligman, M. E. P., & Teasdale, J. D. (1978). Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87, 49-74. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.87.1.49
4. Arbuckle, J. L. (2006). Amos (Version 7.0) [Computer Program]. Chicago, IL: SPSS.
5. Beck, A. T. (1967). Depression: Clinical, experimental and theoretical aspects. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
6. Beck, A. T., Emery, G., & Greenberg, R. L. (1985). Anxiety disorders and phobias: A cognitive perspective. New York, NY: Basic Books.
7. Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
8. Beck, A. T., & Steer, R. A. (1987). Beck depression inventory: Manual. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
9. Beck, A. T., & Steer, R. A. (1988). Manual for the beck hopelessness scale. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
10. Bisson, J. I., Ehlers, A., Matthews, R., Pilling, S., Richards, D., & Turner, S. (2007). Psychological treatments for chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. Systematic review and meta-analysis. British Journal of Psychiatry, 190, 97-104. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.106.021402
11. Blanchard, E. B., Buckley, T. C., Hickling, E. J., & Taylor, A. E. (1998). Posttraumatic stress disorder and comorbid major depression: Is the correlation an illusion? Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 12, 21-37. doi: 10.1016/S0887-6185(97)00047-9
12. Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. New York, NY: Wiley.
13. Brady, K. T., Killeen, T. K., Brewerton, T., & Lucerini, S. (2000). Co-morbidity of psychiatric disorders and posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 61, 22-32.
14. Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., Rose, S., & Kirk, M. (1999). Acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder in victims of violent crime. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 360-366.
15. Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., & Valentine, J. D. (2000). Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 748-766. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.68.5.748
16. Brewin, C. R., Dalgleish, T., & Joseph, S. (1996). A dual representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Review, 103, 670-686. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.103.4.670
17. Bryant, R. A., & Guthrie, R. M. (2005). Maladaptive appraisals as a risk factor for posttraumatic stress: A study of trainee firefighters. Psychological Science, 16, 749-752. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01608.x
18. Bryant, R. A., & Guthrie, R. M. (2007). Maladaptive self-appraisals before trauma exposure predict posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75, 5, 812-815. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.75.5. 812
19. Bryant, R. A., & Harvey, A. G. (2000). Acute stress disorder: A handbook of theory, assessment, and treatment. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/10346-000
20. Butler, A. C., Chapman, J. E., Forman, E. M., & Beck, A. T. (2006). The empirical status of cognitive-behavioral therapy: A review of meta-analyses. Clinical Psychology Review, 2006, 26, 1, 17-31. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2005.07.003
21. Clark, D. M. (1999). Anxiety disorders: Why they persist and how to treat them. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, S5-S27.
22. Clohessy, S., & Ehlers, A. (1999). PTSD symptoms, response to intrusive memories and coping in ambulance service workers. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38, 251-265. doi:10.1348/014466599162836
23. Dunmore, E., Clark, D. M., & Ehlers, A. (1999). Cognitive factors involved in the onset and maintenance of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after physical or sexual assault. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 809-829. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(98)00181-8
24. Dunmore, E., Clark, D. M., & Ehlers, A. (2001). A prospective investigation of the role of cognitive factors in persistent posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after physical or sexual assault. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 1063-1084. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(00)00088-7
25. Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 319-345. doi: 10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00123-0
26. Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2008). Posttraumatic stress disorder: The development of effective psychological treatments. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 47, 11-18.
27. Ehlers, A., Maercker, A., & Boos, A. (2000). PTSD following political imprisonment: The role of mental defeat, alienation, and permanent change. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 45-55. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.109.1.45
28. Ehlers, A., Mayou, R. A., & Bryant, B. (1998). Psychological predictors of chronic PTSD after motor vehicle accidents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 508-519. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.107.3.508
29. Ehlers, A., & Steil, R. (1995). Maintenance of intrusive memories in posttrau-matic stress disorder: A cognitive approach. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 23, 217-249. doi:10.1017/S135246580001585X
30. Ehring, T., Ehlers, A., & Glucksman, E. (2006). Contribution of cognitive factors to the prediction of posttraumatic stress disorder, phobia and depression after motor vehicle accidents. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 1699-1716. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2005.11.013
31. Ehring, T., Ehlers, A., & Glucksman, E. (2008). Do cognitive models help in predicting the severity of posttraumatic stress disorder, phobia and depression after motor vehicle accidents? A prospective longitudinal study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76, 219-230. doi:10.1037/0022- 006X.76.2.219
32. First, M. B., Spitzer, R. L., Gibbon, M., & Williams, J. B. W. (1996). Structured clinical interview for DSM-IV axis I disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
33. Foa, E. B., Cashman, L., Jaycox, L., & Perry, K. (1997). The validation of a self-report measure of posttraumatic stress disorder: The Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale. Psychological Assessment, 9, 445-451. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.9.4.445
34. Foa, E. B., Ehlers, A., Clark, D. M., Tolin, D. F., & Orsillo, S. M. (1999). The Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory (PTCI): Development and validation. Psychological Assessment, 11, 303-314. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.11.3. 303
35. Foa, E. B., & Riggs, D. S. (1993). Posttraumatic stress disorder in rape victims. In J. M. Oldham, M. B. Riba, & A. Tasman (Eds.), Annual review of psychiatry (pp. 273-303). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
36. Foa, E. B., & Riggs, D. S. (1995). Post-traumatic stress disorder following assault: Theoretical considerations and empirical findings. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4, 61-65. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.ep10771786
37. Ford, E., Ayers, S., & Bradley, R. (2010). Exploration of a cognitive model to predict posttraumatic stress symptoms following childbirth. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24, 3, 353-359. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.01.008
38. Gloaguen, V., Cottraux, J., Cucherat, M., & Blackburn, I. M. (1998). A meta-analysis of the effects of cognitive therapy in depressed patients. Journal of Affective Disorders, 49, 59-72. doi:10.1016/S0165-0327(97)00199-7
39. Grant, D. M., Beck, G., Marques, L., Palyo, S. A., & Clapp, J. D. (2008). The structure of distress following trauma: Posttraumatic stress disorder, major depression, and generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 662-672. doi:10.1037/a0012591
40. Halligan, S. L., Michael, T., Clark, D. M., & Ehlers, A. (2003). Posttrau-matic stress disorder following assault: The role of cognitive processing, trauma memory, and appraisals. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 419-431. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.71.3.419
41. Hankin, B. L., Abramson, L. Y., & Haeffel, G. J. (2004). Cognitive vulnerability-stress theories of depression: Examining affective specificity in the prediction of depression versus anxiety in three prospective studies. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28, 309-345. doi:10.1023/B: COTR.0000031805. 60529.0d
42. Hollon, S. D., Stewart, M. O., & Strunk, D. (2006). Enduring effects for cognitive behavior therapy in the treatment of depression and anxiety. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 285-315. doi:10.1146/annurev-.psych.57.102904. 190044
43. Ingram, R. E., Miranda, J., & Segal, Z. V. (1998). Cognitive vulnerability to depression. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
44. Kendler, K. S., Hettema, J. M., Butera, F., Gardner, C. O., & Prescott, C. A. (2003). Life event dimensions of loss, humiliation, entrapment and danger in the prediction of onsets of major depression and generalized anxiety disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 789-796. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.60.8.789
45. Kessler, R. C., Zhao, S., Blazer, D. G., & Swartz, M. (1997). Prevalence, correlates, and course of major depression in the national comorbidity survey. Journal of Affective Disorders, 45, 19-30. doi:10.1016/S0165-0327(97)00056-6
46. Kessler, R. C. (1997). The effects of stressful life events on depression. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 191-214. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych. 48.1.191
47. Kilpatrick, D. G., & Acierno, R. (2003). Mental health needs of crime victims: Epidemiology and outcomes. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16, 119-132. doi:10.1023/A:1022891005388
48. Kleim, B., Ehlers, A., & Glucksman, E. (2007). Early predictors of post-traumatic stress disorder in assault survivors. Psychological Medicine, 37, 1457-1467. doi:10.1017/S0033291707001006
49. Kleim, B., Gonzalo, D., & Ehlers, A. (2011). The depressive attributions questionnaire (DAQ): Development of a short self-report measure of depressogenic attributions. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 33, 375-385. doi:10.1007/s10862-011-9234-9
50. Kline, R. B. (1998). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
51. Kubany, E. S., Haynes, S. N., Leisen, M. B., Owens, J. A., Kaplan, A. S., Watson, S. B., & Burns, K. (2000). Development and preliminary validation of a brief broad-spectrum measure of trauma exposure: The Traumatic Life Events Questionnaire. Psychological Assessment, 12, 210-224. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.12. 2.210
52. Lewinsohn, P. M., Allen, N. B., Seeley, J. R., & Gotlib, I. H. (1999). First onset versus recurrence of depression: Differential processes of psychosocial risk. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108, 483-489. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.108.3.483
53. Mayou, R. A., Bryant, B. M., & Ehlers, A. (2001). Prediction of psychological outcomes one year after a motor vehicle accident. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1231-1238. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.158.8.1231
54. Murray, J., Ehlers, A., & Mayou, R. A. (2002). Dissociation and posttrau-matic stress disorder: Two prospective studies of road traffic accident survivors. British Journal of Psychiatry, 180, 363-368. doi:10.1192/bjp.180.4. 363
55. Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2000). The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depression symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 3, 504-511. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.109.3.504
56. O'Donnell, M. L., Creamer, M., & Pattison, P. (2004). Posttraumatic stress disorder and depression following trauma: Understanding comorbidity. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 1390-1396. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.161.8.1390
57. O'Donnell, M. L., Creamer, M. C., Parslow, R., Elliott, P., Holmes, A. C., Ellen, S., Bryant, R. A. (2008). A predictive screening index for posttraumatic stress disorder and depression following traumatic injury. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76, 6, 923-932. doi: 10.1037/a0012918
58. O'Donnell, M. L., Elliott, P., Wolfgang, B. J., & Creamer, M. (2007). Posttraumatic appraisals in the development and persistence of posttrau-matic stress symptoms. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20, 173-182. doi:10.1002/jts.20198
59. Ozer, E. J., Best, S. R., Lipsey, T. L., & Weiss, D. S. (2003). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 52-73. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.1. 52
60. Regambal, M. J., & Alden, L. E. (2009). Pathways to intrusive memories in a trauma analogue paradigm: A structural equation model. Depression and Anxiety, 26, 155-166. doi:10.1002/da.20483
61. Reilly-Harrington, N. A., Alloy, L. B., Fresco, D. M., & Whitehouse, W. G. (1999). Cognitive styles and life events interact to predict bipolar and unipolar symptomatology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108, 567-578. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.108.4.567
62. Resick, P. A., & Schnicke, M. K. (1993). Cognitive processing therapy for rape victims. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
63. Resnick, H. S., Kilpatrick, D. G., Dansky, B. S., Saunders, B. E., & Best, C. L. (1993). Prevalence of civilian trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in a representative national sample of women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 984-991. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.61.6.984
64. Riskind, J. H., & Alloy, L. B. (2006). Cognitive vulnerability to emotional disorders: Theory, design, and methods. In L. B. Alloy & J. H. Riskind (Eds.), Cognitive vulnerability to emotional disorders (pp. 1-29). Mah-wah, NJ: Erlbaum.
65. Rothbaum, B. O., Foa, E. B., Riggs, D. S., Murdock, T. B., & Walsh, W. (1992). A prospective examination of posttraumatic stress disorder in rape victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5, 455-475. doi:10.1002/jts.2490050309
66. Smith, J. M., & Alloy, L. B. (2009). A roadmap to rumination: A review of the definition, assessment and conceptualization of this multifaceted construct. Clinical Psychology Review, 29, 2, 116-128. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2008. 10.003
67. Teasdale, J. D., & Barnard, P. J. (1993). Affect, cognition, and change: Re-modelling depressive thought. Hove, UK: Erlbaum.
68. Teasdale, J. D., & Cox, S. G. (2001). Dysphoria: Self-devaluative and affective components in recovered depressed patients and never depressed controls. Psychological Medicine, 31, 1311-1316. doi:10.1017/S003329170100424X
69. Wenninger, K., & Ehlers, A. (1998). Dysfunctional cognitions and adult psychological functioning in child sexual abuse survivors. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11, 281-300. doi:10.1023/A:1024451103931
70. Williams, J. M. G. (2003). Hopelessness scale: Short form. Unpublished manuscript.
71. Zatzick, D. F. (2003). Posttraumatic stress, functional impairment, and service utilization after injury: A public health approach. Seminars in Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 8, 149-157. doi:10.1016/S1084-3612 (03)00017-0