Gastroesophageal reflux in critically ill patients

Dimensions of Critical Care Nursing

Volumn 32, Issue 2, 2013, Pages 69-77

  Schallom, Marilyn ^a   Orr, James ^b   Metheny, Norma ^c   Pierce, Janet ^b  

^a BARNES JEWISH HOSPITAL   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS   (United States)

^c SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION; ASPIRATION PNEUMONIA; GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX; HUMAN; INTENSIVE CARE NURSING; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; NURSING; NURSING ASSESSMENT; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; PNEUMONIA, ASPIRATION;

CRITICAL CARE NURSING; GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX; HUMANS; INTENSIVE CARE UNITS; NURSING ASSESSMENT; PNEUMONIA, ASPIRATION; RESPIRATION, ARTIFICIAL; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 84873930735     PISSN: 07304625     EISSN: 15388646     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/DCC.0b013e318280836b     Document Type: Article

References (87)

1. Richter JE. Gastroesophageal reflux disease. In: Yamada T, Alpers DH, Kalloo AN, et al, eds. Gastroenterology. 5th ed. West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell; 2009:772-801.
2. Starosta V, Kitz R, Hartl D, Marcos V, Reinhardt D, Griese M. Bronchoalveolar pepsin, bile acids, oxidation, and inflammation in children with gastroesophageal reflux disease. Chest. 2007; 132:1557-1564.
3. McClave SA, DeMeo MT, DeLegge MH, et al. North American summit on aspiration in the critically ill patient: consensus statement. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2002;26:S80-S85.
4. DeLegge MH. Aspiration pneumonia: incidence, mortality, and at-risk populations. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2002;26:S19-S24.
5. Elpern EH, Stutz L, Peterson S, Gurka DP, Skipper A. Outcomes associated with enteral tube feedings in a medical intensive care unit. Am J Crit Care. 2004;13:221-227.
6. Metheny NA, Clouse RE, Chang Y-H, Stewart BJ, Oliver DA, Kollef MH. Tracheobronchial aspiration of gastric contents in critically ill tube-fed patients: frequency, outcomes, and risk factors. Crit Care Med. 2006;34:1007-1015.
7. Kahrilas PJ, Pandolfino JE. Esophageal motor function. In: Yamada T, Alpers DH, Kalloo AN, et al, eds. Gastroenterology. 5th ed. West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell; 2009:187-206.
8. Ferrer M, Bauer T, Torres A, Hernandez C, Piera C. Effect of nasogastric tube size on gastroesophageal reflux and microaspiration in intubated patients. Ann Intern Med. 1999;130:991-994.
9. Schneider JH, Kuper M, Konigsrainer A, Brucher B. Transient lower esophageal sphincter relaxation in morbid obesity. Obes Surg. 2009;19:595-600.
10. Tablan OC, Anderson LJ, Besser R, Bridges C, Hajjeh R. Guidelines for preventing health-care associated pneumonia, 2003. MMWR. 2004;53:36.
11. American Association of Critical Care Nurses. Ventilator associated pneumonia, clinical practice alert. 2008. http://www .aacn.org. Accessed June 2011.
12. Martindale RG, McClave SA, Vanek VW, et al. Guidelines for the provision and assessment of nutrition support therapy in the adult critically ill patient: Society of Critical Care Medicine and American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition. Crit Care Med. 2009;37:1-30.
13. Metheny NA, Davis-Jackson J, Stewart BJ. Effectiveness of an aspiration risk-reduction protocol. Nurs Res. 2010;59:18-25.
14. Hasler WL. The physiology of gastric motility and gastric emptying. In: Yamada T, Alpers DH, Kalloo AN, et al, eds. Gastroenterology. 5th ed. West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell; 2009:207-230.
15. Hall JE. Secretory functions of the alimentary tract. In: Hall JE, ed. Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology. 12th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders Elsevier; 2011:773-788.
16. Parkman HP, Friedenberg FK, Fisher RS. Disorders of gastric emptying. In: Yamada T, Alpers DH, Kalloo AN, et al, eds. Gastroenterology. 5th ed. West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell; 2009:903-935.
17. Deane AM, Fraser RJ, Chapman MJ. Prokinetic drugs for feed intolerance in critical illness: current and potential therapies. Crit Care Resusc. 2009;11:132-143.
18. Fraser RJL, Bryant L. Current and future therapeutic prokinetic therapy to improve enteral feed intolerance in the ICU patient. Nutr Clin Pract. 2010;25:26-31.
19. Hasler WL. Motility of the small intestine and colon. In: Yamada T, Alpers DH, Kalloo AN, et al, eds. Gastroenterology. 5th ed. West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell; 2009:231-263.
20. Schindlbeck NE, Lippert M, Heinrich C, Muller-Lissner SA. Intragastric bile acid concentrations in critically ill, artificially ventilated patients. Am J Gastroenterol. 1989;84:624-628.
21. Dive A, Michel I, Galanti L, Jamart J, Vander Borght T, Installe E. Gastric acidity and duodenogastric reflux during nasojejunal tube feeding in mechanically ventilated patients. Intensive Care Med. 1999;25:574-580.
22. Nagler R. Persistent gastroesophageal reflux induced during prolonged gastric intubation. N Engl J Med. 1963;269:495-500.
23. Wilmer A, Tack J, Frans E, et al. Duodenogastroesophageal reflux and esophageal mucosal injury in mechanically ventilated patients. Gastroenterology. 1999;116:1293-1299.
24. Ibanez J, Penafiel A, Raurich JM, Marse P, Jorda R, Mata F. Gastroesophageal reflux in intubated patients receiving enteral nutrition: effect of supine and semirecumbent positions. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1992;16:419-422.
25. Gomes GF, Pisani JC, Macedo ED, Campos AC. The nasogastric feeding tube as a risk factor for aspiration and aspiration pneumonia. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2003;6:327-333.
26. Dotson RG, Robinson RG, Pingleton SK. Gastroesophageal reflux with nasogastric tubes. Effect of nasogastric tube size. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;149:1659-1662.
27. Ibanez J, Penafiel A, Marse P, Jorda R, Raurich JM, Mata F. Incidence of gastroesophageal reflux and aspiration in mechanically ventilated patients using small-bore nasogastric tubes. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2000;24:103-106.
28. Russell GN, Ip Yam PC, Tran J, et al. Gastroesophageal reflux and tracheobronchial contamination after cardiac surgery: should a nasogastric tube be routine Anesth Analg. 1996;83:228-232.
29. Manning BJ, Winter DC, McGreal G, Kirwan WO, Redmond HP. Nasogastric intubation causes gastroesophageal reflux in patients undergoing elective laparotomy. Surgery. 2001;130: 788-791.
30. Coben RM, Weintraub A, DiMarino AJ Jr, Cohen S. Gastroesophageal reflux during gastrostomy feeding. Gastroenterology. 1994;106:13-18.
31. Balan KK, Vinjamuri S, Maltby P, et al. Gastroesopohageal reflux in patients fed by percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG): detection by a simple scintigraphic method. Am J Gastroenterol. 1998;93:946-949.
32. Douzinas EE, Andrianakis I, Livaditi O, et al. Reasons of PEG failure to eliminate gastroesophageal reflux in mechanically ventilated patients. World J Gastroenterol. 2009;15:5455-5460.
33. Roy P-M, Person B, Souday V, Kerkeni N, Dib N, Asfar P. Percutaneous radiologic gastrostomy versus nasogastric tube in critically ill patients. Clin Nutr. 2005;24:321-325.
34. Douzinas EE, Tsapalos A, Dimitrakopoulos A, Diamanti-Kandarakis E, Rapidis AD, Roussos C. Effect of percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy on gastroesophageal reflux in mechanically-ventilated patients. World J Gastroenterol. 2006; 12:114-118.
35. Lee T-H, Shiun Y-C. Changes in gastroesophageal reflux in patients with nasogastric tube followed by percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy. J Formos Med Assoc. 2011;110:115-119.
36. Kearns PJ, Chin D, Mueller L, Wallace K, Jensen WA, Kirsch CM. The incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia and success in nutrient deliverywith gastric versus small intestinal feeding: a randomized clinical trial. Crit Care Med. 2000;28: 1742-1746.
37. Neumann DA, DeLegge MH. Gastric versus small-bowel tube feeding in the intensive care unit: a prospective comparison of efficacy. Crit Care Med. 2002;30:1436-1438.
38. Montejo JC, Grau T, Acosta J, et al. Multicenter, prospective, randomized, single-blind study comparing the efficacy and gastrointestinal complications of early jejunal feeding with early gastric feeding in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med. 2002; 30:796-800.
39. Heyland DK, Drover JW, MacDonald S, Novak F, Lam M. Effect of postpyloric feeding on gastroesophageal regurgitation and pulmonary microaspiration: results of a randomized controlled trial. Crit Care Med. 2001;29:1495-1501.
40. Montecalvo MA, Steger KA, Farber HW, et al. Nutritional outcome and pneumonia in critical care patients randomized to gastric versus jejunal tube feedings. The Critical Care Research Team. Crit Care Med. 1992;20:1377-1387.
41. Hsu C-W, Sun S-F, Lin S-L, et al. Duodenal versus gastric feeding in medical intensive care unit patients: a prospective, randomized, clinical study. Crit Care Med. 2009;37:1866-1872.
42. Metheny NA, Stewart BJ, McClave SA. Relationship between feeding tube site and respiratory outcomes. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2011;35:346-355.
43. Lucey BC, Gervais DA, Titton RL, et al. Enteric feeding with gastric decompression: management with separate gastric accesses. AJR. 2004;183:387-390.
44. Seidner DL. Preventing enteral tube feeding-associated aspiration: something no one should get blue in the face over. Nutr Clin Pract. 2002;17:140-141.
45. Chen Y-C, Chou S-S, Lin L-H, Wu L-F. The effect of intermittent nasogastric feeding on preventing aspiration pneumonia in ventilated critically ill patients. J Nurs Res. 2006;14:167-179.
46. Bonten MJM, Gaillard CA, van der Hulst R, et al. Intermittent enteral feeding: the influence on respiratory and digestive tract colonization in mechanically ventilated intensive-care-unit patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996;154:394-399.
47. Bowling TE, Cliff B, Wright JW, Blackshaw PE, Perkins AC, Lobo DN. The effects of bolus and continuous nasogastric feeding on gastro-oesophageal reflux and gastric emptying in healthy volunteers: a randomized three-way crossover pilot study. Clin Nutr. 2008;27:608-613.
48. Shimoyama Y, Kusano M, Kawamura O, et al. High-viscosity liquid meal accelerates gastric emptying. Neurgastroenterol Motil. 2007;19:879-886.
49. Kanie J, Suzuki Y, Iguchi A, Akatsu H, Shimokata H. Prevention of gastroesophageal reflux using an application of half-solid nutrients in patients with percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy feeding [letters to the editor]. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2004;52:466-467.
50. Nishiwaki S, Araki H, Shirakami Y, et al. Inhibition of gastroesophageal reflux by semi-solid nutrients in patients with percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2009;33:513-519.
51. Adachi K, Furuta K, Morita T, et al. Half-solidification of nutrient does not decrease gastro-esophageal reflux events in patients fed via percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy. Clin Nutr. 2009;28:648-651.
52. Metehny NA, Schallom ME, Edwards SJ. Effect of gastrointestinal motility and feeding tube site on aspiration risk in critically ill patients: a review. Heart Lung. 2004;33:131-145.
53. Ridley EJ, Davies AR. Practicalities of nutrition support in the intensive care unit: the usefulness of gastric residual volume and prokinetic agents with enteral nutrition. Nutrition. 2011; 27:509-512.
54. Landzinski J, Kiser TH, Fish DN,Wischmeyer PE, MacLaren R. Gastric motility function in critically ill patients tolerant vs intolerant to gastric nutrition. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2008; 32:45-50.
55. Cohen J, Aharon A, Singer P. The paracetamol absorption test: a useful addition to the enteral nutrition algorithm? Clin Nutr. 2000;19:233-236.
56. Kesek DR, Akerlind L, Karlsson T. Early enteral nutrition in the cardiothoracic intensive care unit. Clin Nutr. 2002;21:303-307.
57. Mentec H, Dupont H, Bocchetti M, Cani P, Ponche F, Bleichner G. Upper digestive intolerance during enteral nutrition in critically ill patients: frequency, risk factors, and complications. Crit Care Med. 2001;29:1955-1961.
58. McClave SA, Lukan JK, Stefater JA, et al. Poor validity of residual volumes as a marker for risk of aspiration in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med. 2005;33:324-330.
59. Metheny NA, Schallom L, Oliver DA, Clouse RE. Gastric residual volume and aspiration in critically ill patients receiving gastric feedings. Am J Crit Care. 2008;17:512-520.
60. Poulard F, Dimet J, Martin-Lefevre L, et al. Impact of not measuring residual gastric volume in mechanically ventilated patients receiving early enteral feeding: a prospective beforeafter study. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2010;34:125-130.
61. Montejo JC, Minambres E, Bordeje L, et al. Gastric residual volume during enteral nutrition in ICU patients: the REGANE study. Intensive Care Med. 2010;36:1386-1393.
62. Soulsby CT, KhelaM, Yazaki E, Evans DF, Hennessy E, Powell-Tuck J. Measurements of gastric emptying during continuous nasogastric infusion of liquid feed: electric impedance tomography versus gamma scintigraphy. Clin Nutr. 2006;25:671-680.
63. Chapman MJ, Besanko LK, Burgstad CM, et al. Gastric emptying of a liquid nutrient meal in the critically ill: relationship between scintigraphic and carbon breath test measurement. Gut. 2011;6:1336-1343.
64. MacLaren R, Kiser TH, Fish DN, Wischmeyer PE. Erythromycin vs metoclopramide for facilitating gastric emptying and tolerance to intragastric nutrition in critically ill patients. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2008;32:412-419.
65. Murray CDR, Martin NM, Patterson M, et al. Ghrelin enhances gastric emptying in diabetic gastroparesis: a double blind, placebo controlled, crossover study. Gut. 2005;54:1693-1698.
66. Ritz MA, Fraser R, Edwards N, et al. Delayed gastric emptying in ventilated critically ill patients: measurement by 13C-octanoic acid breath test. Crit Care Med. 2001;29:1744-1749.
67. Deane AM, Zaknic AV, Summers MJ, et al. Intrasubject variability of gastric emptying in the critically ill using a stable isotope breath test. Clin Nutr. 2010;29:682-686.
68. Tack J. Gastric motor and sensory function. Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 2009;25:557-565.
69. Ohno T, Mochiki E, Kuwano H. The roles of motilin and ghrelin in gastrointestinal motility. Int J Pept. 2010;2010:1-6.
70. De Smet B, Mitselos A, Depoortere I. Motilin and ghrelin as prokinetic drug targets. Pharmacol Ther. 2009;123:207-223.
71. Ritz MA, Chapman MJ, Fraser RJ, et al. Erythromycin dose of 70 mg accelerates gastric emptying as effectively as 200 mg in the critically ill. Intensive Care Med. 2005;31:949-954.
72. Nguyen NQ, Chapman MJ, Fraser RJ, Bryant LK, Holloway RH. Erythromycin is more effective than metoclopramide in the treatment of feed intolerance in critical illness. Crit Care Med. 2007;35:483-489.
73. Nguyen NQ, Chapman M, Fraser RJ, Bryant LK, Burgstad C, Holloway RH. Prokinetic therapy for feed intolerance in critical illness: one drug or two Crit Care Med. 2007;35:2561-2567.
74. Sallam HS, Chen JDZ. The prokinetic face of ghrelin. Int J Pept. 2010;2010:1-11.
75. Greenwood-Van Meerveld B, Kriegsman M, Nelson R. Ghrelin as a target for gastrointestinal motility disorders. Peptides. 2011; 32:2352-2356.
76. Crona D, MacLaren R. Gastrointestinal hormone concentrations associated with gastric feeding in critically ill patients. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2011;28:1-8. July online.
77. Pfab F, Winhard M, Nowak-Machen M, et al. Acupuncture in critically ill patients improves delayed gastric emptying: a randomized controlled trial. Anesth Analg. 2011;112:150-155.
78. Xin Y, Dai N, Zhao L, Wang J-G, Si J-M. The effect of famotidine on gastroesophageal and duodenogastroesophageal refluxes in critically ill patients. World J Gastroenterol. 2003; 9:356-358.
79. Potluri S, Friedenberg F, Parkman HP, et al. Comparison of a salivary/sputum pepsin assay with 24-hour esophageal pH monitoring for detection of gastric reflux into the proximal esophagus, oropharynx, and lung. Dig Dis Sci. 2003;48:1813-1817.
80. Kim TH, Lee KJ, Yeo M, Kim DK, Cho SW. Pepsin detection in the sputum/saliva for the diagnosis of gastroesophageal reflux disease in patients with clinically suspected atypical gastroesophageal reflux disease symptoms. Digestion. 2008;77:201-206.
81. Knight J, Lively MO, Johnston N, Dettmer PW, Koufman JA. Sensitive pepsin immunoassay for detection of pharyngopharyngeal reflux. Laryngoscope. 2005;115:1473-1478.
82. Samuels TL, Johnston N. Pepsin as a marker of extraesophageal reflux. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 2010;119(3):203-208.
83. Meert KL, Daphtary KM, Metheny NA. Detection of pepsin and glucose in tracheal secretions as indicators of aspiration in mechanically ventilated children. Pediatr Crit Care Medicine. 2002;3:19-22.
84. Meert KL, Daphtary KM, Metheny NA. Gastric vs smallbowel feeding in critically ill children receiving mechanical ventilation: a randomized controlled trial. Chest. 2004;126:872-878.
85. Metheny NA, Chang Y-H, Ye JS, et al. Pepsin as a marker for pulmonary aspiration. Am J Crit Care. 2002;11:150-154.
86. Metheny NA, Dahms TE, Chang Y-H, Stewart BJ, Frank PA, Clouse RE. Detection of pepsin in tracheal secretions after forced small-volume aspirations of gastric juice. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2004;28:79-84.
87. Sole ML, Penoyer DA, Bennett M, Bertrand J, Talbert S. Oropharyngeal secretion volume in intubated patients: the importance of oral suctioning. Am J Crit Care. 2011;20:e141-e145.