Pregnancy-associated Retinal Diseases and Their Management

Survey of Ophthalmology

Volumn 58, Issue 2, 2013, Pages 127-142

  Errera, Marie Hélène ^a   Kohly, Radha P ^a   da Cruz, Lyndon ^a  

^a MOORFIELDS EYE HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Anesthesia; Anti VEGF; Bevacizumab; Central serous chorioretinopathy; Choroidal neovascularization; Diabetic retinopathy; Myopia; Pharmacokinetics; Pre eclampsia; Pregnancy; Presumed ocular histoplasmosis syndrome; Punctate inner choroidopathy; Ranicizumab; Triamcinolone; Verteporfin

Indexed keywords

BEVACIZUMAB; CORTICOSTEROID; HEMOGLOBIN A1C; INSULIN; MITOMYCIN; PEGAPTANIB; RANIBIZUMAB; TRIAMCINOLONE; VERTEPORFIN;

AMNION FLUID EMBOLISM; CENTRAL SEROUS RETINOPATHY; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIABETIC MACULAR EDEMA; DIABETIC RETINOPATHY; DISEASE EXACERBATION; DISSEMINATED INTRAVASCULAR CLOTTING; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; ECLAMPSIA; GENERAL ANESTHESIA; GLYCEMIC CONTROL; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; INSULIN TREATMENT; LASER COAGULATION; METRORRHAGIA; MYOPIA; NEOPLASM; NEOVASCULAR GLAUCOMA; NONHUMAN; OCULAR HISTOPLASMOSIS; PERIBULBAR ANESTHESIA; PHOTODYNAMIC THERAPY; PREECLAMPSIA; PREGNANCY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PUERPERIUM; RETINA ARTERY OCCLUSION; RETINA DETACHMENT; RETINA DISEASE; RETINA MACULA EDEMA; RETINA NEOVASCULARIZATION; RETINA VEIN OCCLUSION; REVIEW; SUBRETINAL NEOVASCULARIZATION; TERATOGENICITY; UVEITIS; VITREOUS HEMORRHAGE;

EID: 84873602651     PISSN: 00396257     EISSN: 18793304     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.survophthal.2012.08.001     Document Type: Review

References (156)

1. Acheson J.F., Gregson R.M.C., Merry P., et al. Vaso-occlusive retinopathy in the primary antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. Eye 1991, 5:48-55.
2. Agardh E. A case of progression of diabetic retinopathy during pregnancy. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 2002, 80:524-530.
3. Ahmed A., Li X.F., Dunk C.E., et al. Colocalisation of vascular endothelial growth factor and its flt-1 receptor in human placenta. Growth Factors 1995, 12:235-243.
4. Aiello L.P., Cahill M.T., Wong J.S. Systemic considerations in the management of diabetic retinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol 2001, 132:760-776.
5. Standards of medical care in diabetes. Diabetes Care 2009, 32:S13-S61. American Diabetes Association.
6. Anastasilakis K., Symeneonidis C., Kaprinis K., et al. Peripapillary neovascular membrane in a young pregnant woman and prompt response to ranibizumab injections following uneventful delivery. Case Rep Ophthalmol 2011, 2:129-133.
7. Andrade R.E., Muccioli C., Farah M.E., et al. Intravitreal triamcinolone in the treatment of serous retinal detachment in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol 2004, 137:572-574.
8. Arun C.S., Taylor R. Influence of pregnancy on long-term progression of retinopathy in patients with type 1 diabetes. Diabetologia 2008, 51:1041-1045.
9. Avery R.L., Pearlman J., Pieramici D.J., et al. Intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) in the treatment of proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Ophthalmology 2006, 113:e1-e15.
10. Axer-Siegel R., Hod M., Fink-Cohen S., et al. Diabetic retinopathy during pregnancy. Ophthalmology 1996, 103:1815-1819.
11. Bainbridge J.W., Mistry A.R., Thrasher A.J., et al. Gene therapy for ocular angiogenesis. Clin Sci 2003, 104:561-575.
12. Bakri S.J., Snyder M.R., Reid J.M., et al. Pharmacokinetics of intravitreal ranibizumab (Lucentis). Ophthalmology 2007, 114:2179-2182.
13. Ben Mehidi A., Massin P., Paques M., et al. Retinopathie diabetique et grosssesse. J Fr Ophthalmol 1999, 22:602-610.
14. Best R.M., Chakravarthy U. Diabetic retinopathy in pregnancy. Br J Ophthalmol 1997, 81:249-251.
15. Borromeo C.J., Blike G.T., Wiley C.W., et al. Cortical blindness in a preeclamptic patient after a cesarean delivery complicated by hypotension. Anesth Analg 2000, 91:609-611.
16. Bouzas E.A., Scott M.H., Mastorakos G., et al. Central serous chorioretinopathy in endogenous hypercortisolism. Arch Ophthalmol 1993, 111:1229-1233.
17. Carmeliet P., Moons L., Luttun A., et al. Synergism between vascular endothelial growth factor and placental growth factor contributes to angiogenesis and plasma extravasation in pathological conditions. Nat Med 2001, 7:575-583.
18. Carstensen L.L., Frost-Larsen K., Fugleberg S., et al. Does pregnancy influence the prognosis of uncompicated insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 1982, 5:1-5.
19. Cassar J., Kohner E.M., Hamilton A.M., et al. Diabetic retinopathy and pregnancy. Diabetologia 1978, 15:105-111.
20. Castellon R., Hamdi H.K., Sacerio I., et al. Effects of angiogenic growth factor combinations on retinal endothelial cells. Exp Eye Res 2002, 74:523-535.
21. Chan W.C., Lim L.T., Quinn M.J., et al. Management and outcome of sight threatening diabetic retinopathy in pregnancy. Eye 2004, 18:826-832.
22. Chantelau E. Evidence that upregulation of serum IGF-I concentration can trigger acceleration of diabetic retinopathy. Br J Ophthalmol 1998, 82:725-730.
23. Chapman C., Blaydon S., Clement S., et al. Utility of routine ophthalmologic examination in patients with gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 1993, 16:1413-1414.
24. Chen H.C., Newsom R.S., Patel V., et al. Retinal blood flow changes during pregnancy in women with diabetes. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1994, 35:3199-3208.
25. Chew E.Y., Rand L., Mills J.L., et al. Metabolic control and progression of retinopathy: the Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study. Diabetes Care 1993, 18:631-637.
26. Chew E.Y., Mills J.L., Metzger B.E., et al. Metabolic control and the progression of retinopathy. The diabetes in early pregnancy study. Diabetes Care 1995, 18:6317.
27. Chidley K.E., Law R., Vanner R.G. Caesarean section following a recent retinal haemorrhage. Anaesthesia 1998, 53:483-485.
28. Cogan D.G. Ocular involvement in intravascular coagulopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 1975, 93:1-8.
29. Cross S.N., Ratner E., Rutherford T.J., et al. Bevacizumab-mediated interference with VEGF signaling is sufficient to induce a preeclampsia-like syndrome in nonpregnant women. Rev Obstet Gynecol 2012, 5:2-8.
30. Cunningham F.G., Fernandez C.O., Hernandez C. Blindness associated with preeclampsia and eclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995, 172:1291-1298.
31. Cyganek K., Hebda-Szydlo A., Skupien J., et al. Glycemic control and pregnancy outcomes in women with type 2 diabetes from Poland. The impact of pregnancy planning and a comparison with type 1 diabetes subjects. Endocrine 2011, 40:243-249.
32. Dahl-Jorgensen K., Rinchmann-Hansen O., Hanssen K.F., et al. Rapid tightening of blood glucose control leads to transent deterioration of retinopathy in insulin dependent diabetes mellitus: the Oslo Study. Br Med J 1985, 290:811-815.
33. Dandona P., Bolger J.P., Boag F., et al. Rapid development and progression of proliferative retinopathy after strict diabetic control. Br Med J 1985, 290:895-896.
34. Davidorf F.H., Chambers R.B. Diabetic retinopathy during pregnancy. Clin Perinatol 1993, 20:571-581.
35. De Santis M., Carducci B., De Santis L., et al. First case of post-conception Verteporfin exposure: pregnancy and neonatal outcome. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 2004, 82:623-624.
36. Dibble C.M., Kochenour N.K., Worley R.J., et al. Effect of pregnancy on diabetic retinopathy. Obstet Gynecol 1982, 59:699-704.
37. Dunk C., Shams M., Nijjar S., et al. Angiopoietin-1 and angiopoietin-2 activate trophoblast Tie-2 to promote growth and migration during placental development. Am J Pathol 2000, 156:2185-2199.
38. Dunlop S.A., Archer M.A., Quinlivan J.A., et al. Repeated prenatal corticosteroids delay myelination in the ovine central nervous system. J Matern Fetal Med 1997, 6:309-313.
39. Early photocoagulation for diabetic retinopathy. ETDRS report number 9. Ophthalmology 1991, 98:766-785. Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group.
40. Eldor A. Thromphilia and its treatment in pregnancy. J Thromb Thrombolysis 2001, 12:23-30.
41. Fastenberg D.M., Fetkenhour C.L., Choromokos E., et al. Choroidal vascular changes in toxaemia of pregnancy. Am J Ophthalmol 1980, 89:362-368.
42. Ferrara N., Davis-Smyth T. The biology of vascular endothelial growth factor. Endocr Rev 1997, 18:4-25.
43. Fong K.C., Thomas D., Amin K., et al. Photodynamic therapy combined with systemic corticosteroids for choroidal neovascularization secondary to punctuate inner choroidopathy. Eye 2008, 22:528-533.
44. Furukawa S., Usuda K., Abe M., et al. Histopathological findings of cleft palate in rat embryos induced by triamcinolone acetonide. J Vet Med Sci 2004, 66:397-402.
45. Gass J.D.M. Stereoscopic Atlas of Macular Diseases: Diagnosis and Treatment 1987, Mosby Year Book, St Louis, MO, ed 3.
46. Gass J.D., Little H. Bilateral bullous exudative retinal detachment complicating idiopathic central serous chorioretinopathy during systemic corticosteroid therapy. Ophthalmology 1995, 102:737-747.
47. Gass J.D. Stereoscopic Atlas of Macular Diseases 1997, Mosby, St Louis, MO, ed 4, pp 62-70.
48. Gaucher D., Saleh M., Sauer A., et al. Progression de la retinopathie diabetique durant la grossesse. J Fr Ophtalmol 2010, 33:355-361.
49. Gaudreault J., Fei D., Rusit J., et al. Preclinical pharmacokinetics of Ranibizumab (rhuFabV2) after a single intravitreal administration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2005, 46:726-733.
50. Gerstenblith A.T., Thorne J.E., Sobrin L., et al. Punctate inner choroidopathy. A survey analysis of 77 persons. Ophthalmology 2007, 114:1201-1204.
51. Ghaem-Maghami S., Cook H., Bird A., et al. High myopia and pre-eclampsia: a blinding combination. BJOG 2006, 113:608-609.
52. Gómez Ledesma I., de Santiago Rodríguez M.A., Follana Neira I., et al. Neovascular membrane and pregnancy. Treatment with bevacizumab. Arch Soc Esp Oftalmol 2012, 87:297-300.
53. Gonzalvo F.J., Abecia E., Pinilla I., et al. Central retinal vein occlusion and HELLP syndrome. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 2000, 78:596-598.
54. Gupta A., Kaliaperumal S., Setia S., et al. Retinopathy in preeclampsia: association with birth weight and uric acid level. Retina 2008, 28:1104-1110.
55. Hadden D.R. Diabetes in pregnancy. Diabetologia 1986, 29:1-9.
56. Hagay Z.J., Schachter M., Pollack A., et al. Development of proliferative retinopathy in a gestational diabetes patient following rapid metabolic control. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1994, 57:211-213.
57. Hahn T., Graf R., Oney T., et al. Effects of the synthetic glucocorticoid triamcinolone acetonide on vasoactive hydrolases of the human placenta in vitro. Placenta 1994, 15:377-388.
58. Haimovici R., Koh S., Gagnon D.R., et al. The central serous chorioretinopathy case-control study group. Risk factors for central serous chorioretinopathy. Ophthalmology 2004, 111:244-249.
59. Halperin L.S., Olk R.J., Soubrane G., et al. Safety of fluorescein angiography during pregnancy. Am J Ophthalmol 1990, 15:563-658.
60. Hawthorne G. Maternal complications in diabetic pregnancy. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2011, 25:77-90.
61. Hellstedt T., Kaaja R., Teramo K., et al. Macular blood flow during pregnancy in patients with early diabetic retinopathy measured by blue-field entoptic simulation. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 1996, 234:659-663.
62. Hemachandra A., Ellis D., Lloyd C.E., et al. The influence of pregnancy on IDDM complications. Diabetes Care 1995, 18:950-954.
63. Hoines J., Buettner H. Ocular complications of disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) in abruption placentae. Retina 1989, 9:105-109.
64. Horvat M., Maclean H., Goldberg L., et al. Diabetic retinopathy in pregnancy: a 12-year prospective survey. Br J Ophthalmol 1980, 64:398.
65. Huang W.L., Harper C.G., Evans S.F., et al. Repeated prenatal corticosteroid administration delays myelination of the corpus callosum in fetal sheep. Int J Dev Neurosci 2001, 19:415-425.
66. Hutchings K., Sangalli M., Halliwell T., et al. Bilateral retinal detachment in pregnancy. Aust NZ J Obstet Gynaecol 2002, 42:409.
67. Introini U., Casalino G., Cardani A., et al. Intravitreal bevacizumab for a subfoveal myopic choroidal neovascularization in the first trimester of pregnancy. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther 2012, 28(5):553-555.
68. Kaaja R., Sjoberg L., Hellsted T., et al. Long-term effects of pregnancy on diabetic complications. Diabet Med 1996, 13:165-169.
69. Kincaid M.C., Green W.R., Knox D.L., et al. A clinicopathological case report of retinopathy of pancreatitis. Br J Ophthalmol 1982, 66:219-226.
70. Kingsley R., Ghosh G., Lawson P., et al. Severe diabetic retinopathy in adolescents. Br J Ophthalmol 1983, 67:73-79.
71. Kitzmiller J.L., Aiello L.M., Kaldany A., et al. Diabetic vascular disease complicating pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1981, 24:107-123.
72. Kitzmiller J.L., Block J.M., Brown F.M., et al. Managing preexisting diabetes for pregnancy: summary of evidence and consensus recommendations for care. Diabetes Care 2008, 31:1060-1079.
73. Klein B.E.K., Moss S.E., Klein R. Effect of pregnancy on progression of diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Care 1990, 13:34-40.
74. Laatikainen L., Teramo K., Hieta-Heikurainen H., et al. A controlled study of the influence of continuoussubcutaneous insulin infusion treatment on diabetic retinopathy during pregnancy. Acta Med Scand 1987, 221:367-376.
75. Lara-Torre E., Lee M.S., Wolf M.A., et al. Bilateral retinal occlusion progressing to long-lasting blindness in severe preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol 2002, 100:940-942.
76. Lauritzen T., Frost-Larsen K., Larsen H.W., et al. Effect of 1 year of near-normal blood glucose levels on retinopathy insulin-dependent diabetics. Lancet 1983, 1:200-204.
77. Lauszus F.F., Klebe J.G., Bek T., et al. Increased serum IGF-I during pregnancy is associated with progression of diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes 2003, 52:852-856.
78. Lauszus F.F. The clinical significance of IGF-I in maternal serum during pregnancy in type 1 diabetes. Curr Diabetes Rev 2007, 3:194-197.
79. Li W., Liu X., He Z., et al. Expression of apoptosis regulatory genes by retinal pericytes after rapid glucose reduction. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1998, 39:1535-1543.
80. Ling C., Atkinson P.L., Munton C.G. Bilateral retinal haemorrhages following epidural injection. Br J Ophthalmol 1993, 77:316-317.
81. Loukovaraa S., Harju M., Kaaja R., et al. Retinal capillary blood flow in diabetic and non diabetic women during pregnancy and postpartum period. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2003, 44:1486-1491.
82. Loukovaara S., Immonen I., Koistinen R., et al. Angiopoietic factors and retinopathy in pregnancies complicated with Type 1 diabetes. Diabet Med 2004, 21:697-704.
83. Loukovaara S., Immonen I.J., Yandle T.G., et al. Vasoactive mediators and retinopathy during type 1 diabetic pregnancy. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 2005, 83:57-62.
84. Loukovaara S., Immonen I.R., Loukovaara M.J., et al. Glycodelin: a novel serum anti-inflammatory marker in type 1 diabetic retinopathy during pregnancy. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 2007, 85:46-49.
85. Lovestam-Adrian M., Agardh C.D., Aberg A., et al. Preeclampsias a potent risk factor for deterioration of retinopathy during pregnancy in diabetic type 1 patients. Diabet Med 1997, 14:1059-1065.
86. Lu M., Amano S., Miyamoto K., et al. Insulin-induced vascular endothelial growth factor expression in retina. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1999, 40:3281-3286.
87. Luchetti M., Magni G., Marraro G. A prospective randomized double-blinded controlled study of ropivacaine 0.75% versus bupivacaine 0.5%-mepivacaine 2% for peribulbar anesthesia. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2000, 25:195-200.
88. Mabie W.C., Ober R.R. Fluorescein angiography in toxaemia of pregnancy. Br J Ophthalmol 1980, 64:666-671.
89. Apte R.S., Modi M., Masonson H., et al. Pegaptanib 1-year systemic safety results from a safety-pharmacokinetic trial in patients with neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Ophthalmology 2007, 114:1702-1712. Macugen AMD Study Group.
90. Maimunah M., Mazza D. Preconception care of women with diabetes: a review of current guideline recommendations. BMC Women's Health 2010, 31:5.
91. Maloney J.B., Drury M.I. The effect of pregnancy on the natural course of diabetic retinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol 1982, 93:745-756.
92. Massin P., Ben Mehidi A., Paques M., et al. Management of diabetic complications during pregnancy using diabetic retinopathy as an example. Diabetes Metab 2001, 27:S48-S52.
93. McLoone E.M., Best R.M. Pregnancy-related papillophlebitis. Eur J Ophthalmol 2004, 14:65-66.
94. Miyagi H., Kubota Y., Tsuda T., et al. Congenital anomalies induced by triamcinolone acetonide in murine embryos. Eur J Pediatr Surg 2008, 18:164-167.
95. Moore P.A. Selecting drugs for the pregnant dental patient. J Am Dent Assoc 1988, 129:1281-1286.
96. Moss T.J., Doherty D.A., Nitsos I., et al. Effects into adulthood of single or repeated antenatal corticosteroids in sheep. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2005, 192:146-152.
97. Nelson M.E., Talbot J.F., Preston F.E. Recurrent multiple-branch retinal arteriolar occlusions in a patient with protein C deficiency. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 1989, 227:443-447.
98. Nomoto H., Shiraga F., Kuno N., et al. Pharmacokinetics of bevacizumab after topical, subconjunctival, and intravitreal administration in rabbits. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2009, 50:4807-4813.
99. Ober R.R. Pregnancy-induced hypertension (pre eclampsia-eclampsia). Retina 1994, Volume 2:1393-1403. CV Mosby, St Louis, MO.
100. Olk R.J., Halperin L.S., Soubrane G., et al. Fluorescein angiography-is it safe to use in a pregnant patient?. Eur J Ophthalmol 1991, 1:103-106.
101. Omori Y., Minei S., Testuo T., et al. Current status of pregnancy in diabetic women. A comparison of pregnancy in IDDM and NIDDM mothers. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 1994, S273-S278.
102. Otani A., Takagi H., Oh H., et al. Angiotensin II induces expression of the Tie2 receptor ligand, angiopoietin-2, in bovine retinal endothelial cells. Diabetes 2001, 50:867-875.
103. Patel N., Riordan-Eva P., Chong V. Persistent visual loss after retinochoroidal infarction in pregnancy-induced hypertension and disseminated intravascular coagulation. J Neuroophthalmol 2005, 25:128-130.
104. Petrou P., Georgalas I., Giavaras G., et al. Early loss of pregnancy after intravitreal bevacizumab injection. Acta Ophthalmol 2010, 88:e136.
105. Phelps R.I., Sakol P., Metzger B.E., et al. Changes in diabetic retinopathy during pregnancy: correlations with regulation of hyperglycemia. Arch Ophthalmol 1986, 104:1806-1810.
106. Price J.H., Hadden D.R., Archer D.B., et al. Diabetic retinopathy in pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1984, 91:11-17.
107. Quillen D.A., Gass D.M., Brod R.D., et al. Central serous chorioretinopathy in women. Ophthalmology 1996, 103:72-79.
108. Quinlivan J.A., Beazley L.D., Evans S.F., et al. Retinal maturation is delayed by repeated, but not single, maternal injections of netamethasone in sheep. Eye 2000, 14:93-98.
109. Rahman I., Saleemi G., Semple D., et al. Pre-eclampsia resulting in central retinal vein occlusion. Eye 2006, 20:955-957.
110. Rahman W., Rahman F.Z., Yassin S., et al. Progression of retinopathy during pregnancy in type 1 diabetes mellitus. Clin Exper Ophthalmol 2007, 35:231-236.
111. Rakic J.M., Lambert V., Devy L., et al. Placental growth factor, a member of the VEGF family, contributes to the development of choroidal neovascularization. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2003, 44:3186-3193.
112. Rasmussen K.L., Laugesen C.S., Ringholm L., et al. Progression of diabetic retinopathy during pregnancy in women with type 2 diabetes. Diabetologia 2010, 53:1076-1083.
113. Razeghinejad R., Tai T.Y.T.T., Fudemberg S.J., et al. Pregnancy and glaucoma. Surv Ophthalmol 2011, 56:324-335.
114. Rezai K.A. Eliott D. Optical coherence tomographic findings in pregnancy-assocaited central serous chorioretinopathy. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2004, 242:1014-1016.
115. Rhee P., Dev S., Mieler W.F. The development of choroidal neovascularisation in pregnancy. Retina 1999, 19:520-524.
116. Ringholm L., Vestgaard M., Laugesen C.S., et al. Pregnancy-induced increase in circulation IGF-I is associated with progression of DR in women with type I diabetes. Growth Horm IGF Res 2011, 11:25-30.
117. Rodrigues E.B., Shiroma H., Meyer C.H., et al. Metrorrhagia after intravitreal injection of bevacizumab. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 2007, 85:915-916.
118. Rosenn B., Miodovnik M., Kranias G., et al. Progression of diabetic retinopathy in pregnancy: association with hypertension in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992, 166:1214-1218.
119. Rosen E., Rubowitz A., Ferencz J.R. Exposure to verteporfin and bevacizumab therapy for choroidal neovascularization secondary to punctate inner choroidopathy during pregnancy. Eye 2009, 23:1479.
120. Saito Y., Tano Y. Retinal pigment epithelial lesions associated with choroidal ischaemia in pre-eclampsia. Retina 1998, 18:103-108.
121. Sane D.C., Anton L., Brosnihan K.B. Angiogenic growth factors and hypertension. Angiogenesis 2004, 7:193-201.
122. Sathish S., Arnold J.J. Case report bilateral choroidal ischaemia and serous retinal detachment in pre-eclampsia. Clin Exper Ophthalmol 2000, 28:387-390.
123. Schocket L.S., Grunwald J.E., Tsang A.F., et al. The effect of pregnancy on retinal hemodynamics in diabetic versus nondiabetic mothers. Am J Ophthalmol 1999, 128:477-484.
124. Schultz K.L., Birnbaum A.D., Goldstein D.A. Ocular disease in pregnancy. Curr Opin Ophthalmol 2005, 16:308-314.
125. Serup L. Influence of pregnancy on diabetic retinopathy. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 1986, 122-124.
126. Shams M., Ahmed A. Localisation of mRNA for basic fibroblast growth factor in human placenta. Growth Factors 1994, 11:105-111.
127. Sim D.A., Sheth H.G., Kaines A., et al. Punctate inner choroidopathy-associated choroidal neovascular membranes during pregnancy. Eye 2008, 22:725-727.
128. Sinclair S.H., Nesler C.L., Foxman B., et al. Macular edema and pregnancy in insulin-dependent diabetes. Am J Ophthalmol 1984, 97:154-167.
129. Smith R.B., Linn J.G. Retrobulbar injection of bupivacaine (marcaine) for anesthesia and akinesia. Invest Ophthalmol 1974, 13:157-158.
130. Smith L.E., Shen W., Perruzzi C., et al. Regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor-dependent retinal neovascularization by insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor. Nat Med 1999, 5:1390-1395.
131. Sone H., Okuda Y., Kawakami Y., et al. Progesterone induces vascular endothelial growth factor on retinal pigment epithelial cells in culture. Life Sci 1996, 59:21-25.
132. Spagnolo B.V., Nasrallah F.P. Bilateral retinal vein occlusion associated with factor V Leiden mutation. Retina 1998, 18:377-378.
133. Stalnikiewicz L., Floriot M., Guerci B., et al. Progression of diabetic retinopathy during pregnancy: a retrospective analysis of a series of 77 consecutive patients. J Fr Ophtalmol 2010, 33:481-486.
134. Sunness J.S., Gass J.D.M., Singerman L.J., et al. Retinal and choroidal changes in pregnancy. Retinal and Choroidal Manifestations of Systemic Disease 1991, 262-286. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, MD. L.J. Singerman, L.M. Jampol (Eds.).
135. Sunness J.S., Haller J.A., Fine S.L. Central serous chorioretinopathy and pregnancy. Arch Ophthalmol 1993, 111:360-364.
136. Talbert L.M., Blatt P.M. Disseminated intravascular coagulation in obstetrics. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1979, 22:889-900.
137. Tarantola R.M., Folk J.C., Boldt H.C., et al. Intravitreal bevacizumab during pregnancy. Retina 2010, 30:1405-1411.
138. Taskapili M., Kocabora S., Gulkilik G. Unusual ocular complications of the HELLP syndrome: persistent macular elevation and localized tractional retinal detachment. Ann Ophthalmol (Skokie) 2007, 39:261-263.
139. Temple R.C., Aldridge V.A., Sampson M.J., et al. Impact of pregnancy on the progression of diabetic retinopathy in type 1 diabetes. Diabet Med 2001, 18:573-577.
140. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 1993, 329:977-986. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group.
141. Early worsening of diabetic retinopathy in the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. Arch Ophthalmol 1998, 116:874-886. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group.
142. Effect of pregnancy on microvascular complications in the diabetes control and complications trial. Diabetes Care 2000, 23:1084-1091. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group.
143. Thornburg K.L., Jacobson S.-L., Giraud G.D., et al. Hemodynamic changes in pregnancy. Semin Perinatol 2000, 24:11-14.
144. Tooke J.E. Microvascular function in human diabetes. A physiological perspective. Diabetes 1995, 44:721-726.
145. Labeling and prescription drug advertising: content and format for labeling for human prescription drugs. Fed Regist 1979, 44:37434-37467. United States Food and Drug Administration.
146. Uno H., Lohmiller L., Thieme C., et al. Brain damage induced by prenatal exposure to dexamethasone in fetal rhesus macaques. I. Hippocampus. Brain Res Dev Brain Res 1990, 53:157-167.
147. Vackova Z., Vagnerova K., Libra A., et al. Dexamethasone and betamethasone administration during pregnancy affects expression and function of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 in the rat placenta. Reprod Toxicol 2009, 28:46-51.
148. Vérier-Mine O., Chaturvedi N., Webb D., et al. Is pregnancy a risk factor for microvascular complications? The EURODIAB Prospective Complications Study. Diabet Med 2005, 22:1503-1509.
149. Vestgaard M., Ringholm L., Laugesen C.S., et al. Pregnancy-induced sight-threatening diabetic retinopathy in women with type 1 diabetes. Diabet Med 2010, 27:431-435.
150. Victory R.A., Hassett P., Morrison G. Transient blindness following epidural analgesia. Anaesthesia 1991, 46:940-941.
151. Vuorela P., Hatva E., Lymboussaki A., et al. Expression of vascular endothelial growth factor and placenta growth factor in human placenta. Biol Reprod 1997, 56:489-494.
152. Wagner H.P. Arterioles of the retina in toxaemia of pregnancy. JAMA 1933, 101:1380-1384.
153. White N.H., Cleary P.A., Dahms W., et al. Beneficial effects of intensive therapy of diabetes during adolescence: outcomes after the conclusion of the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT). J Pediatr 2001, 139:804-812. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT)/Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications (EDIC) Research Group.
154. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000, 183:S1-22. Report of the national high blood pressure education program working group on high blood pressure in pregnancy.
155. Wu Z., Huang J., Sadda S. Inadvertent use of bevacizumab to treat choroidal neovascularisation during pregnancy: a case report. Ann Acad Med Singapore 2010, 39:143-145.
156. Yannuzzi L.A., Rohrer K.T., Tindel L.J., et al. Fluorescein angiography complication survey. Ophthalmology 1986, 93:611-617.