Optimal management of bone metastases in breast cancer patients

Breast Cancer: Targets and Therapy

Volumn 3, Issue , 2011, Pages 35-60

  Wong, Matthew H ^a   Pavlakis, N ^a  

^a ROYAL NORTH SHORE HOSPITAL   (Australia)

Author keywords

Biomarkers; Bisphosphonates; Bone metastases; Breast cancer; Denosumab; Optimal management

Indexed keywords

EID: 84872181358     PISSN: None     EISSN: 11791314     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2147/BCTT.S6655     Document Type: Review

References (169)

1. Galasko C. The anatomy and pathways of skeletal metastases. In: Weiss L, Gilbert A, editors. GK Hall: Boston. Bone Metastases. 1981:49-63.
2. Rubens RD, Coleman R. Bone metastases. In: Abeloff M, Armitage J, Lichter A, Niedberhuber J, editors. Churchill Livingstone: New York. Clinical Oncology. 1995:643-65.
3. Body J. Bisphosphonate in breast cancer and other solid tumours. In: Rubens R, Mundy G, editors. Martin Dunitz Ltd: London. Cancer and the Skeleton. 2000:231-243.
4. Colleoni M, O'Neill A, Goldhirsch A, Gelber RD, Bonetti M, et al. Identifying breast cancer patients at high risk for bone metastases. [see comment]. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2000;18(23):3925-3935.
5. Coleman RE, Rubens RD. The clinical course of bone metastases from breast cancer. British Journal of Cancer. 1987;55(1):61-66.
6. Domchek S, Younger J, Finkelstein D, Seiden M. Predictors of skeletal complications in patients with metastatic breast carcinoma. Cancer. 2000;89(2):363-368.
7. Rosenberg AE. Chapter 26: Bones, Joints, and Soft-Tissue Tumors. In: Kumar V, Abbas A, Fausto N, Aster J, editors. Saunders: Philidelphia. Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease. 2009.
8. Roodman GD. Mechanisms of bone metastasis. [see comment]. New England Journal of Medicine. 2004;350(16):1655-1664.
9. Guise T. Examining the metastatic niche: targeting the microenvironment. Seminars in Oncology. 2010;37 Suppl 2:S2-S14.
10. Roodman GD. Cell biology of the osteoclast. Experimental Hematology. 1999;27(8):1229-1241.
11. Van Poznak C, Cross S, Saggese M, et al. Expression of osteoprotegerin (OPG), TNF related apoptosis inducing ligand (TRAIL), and receptor activator of nuclear factor kappaB ligand (RANKL) in human breast tumours. Journal of Clinical Pathology. 2006;59(1):56-63.
12. Yao GQ, Sun BH, Weir EC, Insogna KL. A role for cell-surface CSF-1 in osteoblast-mediated osteoclastogenesis. Calcified Tissue International. 2002;70(4):339-346.
13. Chambers AF, Groom AC, MacDonald IC. Dissemination and growth of cancer cells in metastatic sites. Nat Rev Cancer. 2002;2(8): 563-572.
14. Kang Y, Siegel PM, Shu W, et al. A multigenic program mediating breast cancer metastasis to bone. Cancer Cell. 2003;3(6):537-549.
15. Jezierska A, Motyl T. Matrix metalloproteinase-2 involvement in breast cancer progression: a mini-review. Med Sci Monit. 2009;15(2): RA32-RA40.
16. Nakopoulou L, Tsirmpa I, Alexandrou P, et al. MMP-2 protein in invasive breast cancer and the impact of MMP-2/TIMP-2 phenotype on overall survival. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2003;77(2):145-155.
17. Ranuncolo SM, Armanasco E, Cresta C, Bal De Kier Joffe E, Puricelli L. Plasma MMP-9 (92 kDa-MMP) activity is useful in the follow-up and in the assessment of prognosis in breast cancer patients. International Journal of Cancer. 2003;106(5):745-751.
18. Raman D, Baugher PJ, Thu YM, Richmond A. Role of chemokines in tumor growth. Cancer Letters. 2007;256(2):137-165.
19. Campbell JJ, Butcher EC. Chemokines in tissue-specif ic and microenvironment-specific lymphocyte homing. Curr Opin Immunol. 2000;12(3):336-341.
20. Muller A, Homey B, Soto H, et al. Involvement of chemokine receptors in breast cancer metastasis. Nature. 2001;410(6824):50-56.
21. Cabioglu N, Sahin AA, Morandi P, et al. Chemokine receptors in advanced breast cancer: differential expression in metastatic disease sites with diagnostic and therapeutic implications. Annals of Oncology. 2009;20(6):1013-1019.
22. Rhodes LV, Short SP, Neel NF, et al. Cytokine receptor CXCR4 mediates estrogen-independent tumorigenesis, metastasis, and resistance to endocrine therapy in human breast cancer. Cancer Res. 2011;71(2): 603-613.
23. Liang Z, Yoon Y, Votaw J, Goodman MM, Williams L, Shim H. Silencing of CXCR4 blocks breast cancer metastasis. Cancer Res. 2005; 65(3):967-971.
24. Richert MM, Vaidya KS, Mills CN, et al. Inhibition of CXCR4 by CTCE-9908 inhibits breast cancer metastasis to lung and bone. Oncol Rep. 2009;21(3):761-767.
25. Hotte S, Hirte H, Moretto P. Final results of a Phase I/II study of CTCE-9908, a novel anticancer agent that inhibits CXCR4, in patients with advanced solid cancers [abstr 405], in EORTC/NCI/AACR Molecular Targets and Cancer Therapeutics 2008 conference. Eur J Cancer Suppl. 2008;6(12):127.
26. Soria G, Ben-Baruch A. The inflammatory chemokines CCL2 and CCL5 in breast cancer. Cancer Letters. 2008;267(2):271-285.
27. Karnoub AE, Dash AB, Vo AP, et al. Mesenchymal stem cells within tumour stroma promote breast cancer metastasis. Nature. 2007;449(7162):557-563.
28. Pinilla S, Alt E, Abdul Khalek FJ, et al. Tissue resident stem cells produce CCL5 under the influence of cancer cells and thereby promote breast cancer cell invasion. Cancer Letters. 2009;284(1):80-85.
29. Kahn D, Weiner GJ, Ben-Haim S, et al. Positron emission tomographic measurement of bone marrow blood flow to the pelvis and lumbar vertebrae in young normal adults. [erratum appears in Blood. 1994 Nov 15;84(10):3602]. Blood. 1994;83(4):958-963.
30. Paget S. The distribution of secondary growths in cancer of the breast. Lancet. 1889;1:99-101.
31. Psaila B, Lyden D. The metastatic niche: adapting the foreign soil. Nat Rev Cancer. 2009;9(4):285-293.
32. Harvey HA. Issues concerning the role of chemotherapy and hormonal therapy of bone metastases from breast carcinoma. Cancer. 1997; 80(8 Suppl):1646-1651.
33. Coleman RE. Skeletal complications of malignancy. Cancer. 1997; 80(8 Suppl):1588-1594.
34. Powell GJ, Southby J, Danks JA, et al. Localization of parathyroid hormone-related protein in breast cancer metastases: increased incidence in bone compared with other sites. Cancer Res. 1991;51(11): 3059-3061.
35. Akhtari M, Mansuri J, Newman KA, Guise TM, Seth P. Biology of breast cancer bone metastasis. Cancer Biol Ther. 2008;7(1):3-9.
36. Kozlow W, Guise TA. Breast cancer metastasis to bone: mechanisms of osteolysis and implications for therapy. Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia. 2005;10(2):169-180.
37. Trinkaus M, Ooi WS, Amir E, et al. Examination of the mechanisms of osteolysis in patients with metastatic breast cancer. Oncol Rep. 2009; 21(5):1153-1159.
38. Kakonen SM, Selander KS, Chirgwin JM, et al. Transforming growth factor-beta stimulates parathyroid hormone-related protein and osteolytic metastases via Smad and mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathways. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2002;277(27): 24571-24578.
39. Dunn LK, Mohammad KS, Fournier PG, et al. Hypoxia and TGF-beta drive breast cancer bone metastases through parallel signaling pathways in tumor cells and the bone microenvironment. PLoS One. 2009;4(9): e6896.
40. Kingsley LA, Fournier PG, Chirgwin JM, Guise TA. Molecular biology of bone metastasis. Mol Cancer Ther. 2007;6(10):2609-2617.
41. Guise TA, Yin JJ, Taylor SD, et al. Evidence for a causal role of parathyroid hormone-related protein in the pathogenesis of human breast cancer-mediated osteolysis. Journal of Clinical Investigation. 1996;98(7):1544-1549.
42. Guise TA, Mohammad KS, Clines G, et al. Basic mechanisms responsible for osteolytic and osteoblastic bone metastases. Clinical Cancer Research. 2006;12(20 Pt 2):6213s-6216s.
43. Clines GA, Guise TA. Molecular mechanisms and treatment of bone metastasis. Expert Reviews in Molecular Medicine. 2008;10:e7.
44. Clines GA, Mohammad KS, Bao Y, et al. Dickkopf homolog 1 mediates endothelin-1-stimulated new bone formation. Molecular Endocrinology. 2007;21(2):486-498.
45. Hall CL, Bafico A, Dai J, Aaronson SA, Keller ET. Prostate cancer cells promote osteoblastic bone metastases through Wnts. Cancer Res. 2005;65(17):7554-7560.
46. Bussard KM, Venzon DJ, Mastro AM. Osteoblasts are a major source of inflammatory cytokines in the tumor microenvironment of bone metastatic breast cancer. J Cell Biochem. 2010;111(5): 1138-1148.
47. Guise TA, Yin JJ, Mohammad KS. Role of endothelin-1 in osteoblastic bone metastases. Cancer. 2003;97(3 Suppl):779-784.
48. Body JJ. Breast cancer: bisphosphonate therapy for metastatic bone disease. Clinical Cancer Research. 2006;12(20 Pt 2):6258s-6263s.
49. Chen T, Berenson J, Vescio R, et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of zoledronic acid in cancer patients with bone metastases. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 2002;42(11):1228-1236.
50. Masarachia P, Weinreb M, Balena R, Rodan GA. Comparison of the distribution of 3H-alendronate and 3H-etidronate in rat and mouse bones. Bone. 1996;19(3):281-290.
51. Rogers MJ. New insights into the molecular mechanisms of action of bisphosphonates. Current Pharmaceutical Design. 2003;9(32): 2643-2658.
52. Roelofs AJ, Thompson K, Gordon S, Rogers MJ. Molecular mechanisms of action of bisphosphonates: current status. Clinical Cancer Research. 2006;12(20 Pt 2):6222s-6230s.
53. Pavlakis N, Schmidt R, Stockler M. Bisphosphonates for breast cancer. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2005;3:CD003474.
54. Theriault RL, Lipton A, Hortobagyi GN, et al. Pamidronate reduces skeletal morbidity in women with advanced breast cancer and lytic bone lesions: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Protocol 18 Aredia Breast Cancer Study Group. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 1999;17(3):846-854.
55. Lipton A, Theriault RL, Hortobagyi GN, et al. Pamidronate prevents skeletal complications and is effective palliative treatment in women with breast carcinoma and osteolytic bone metastases: long term follow-up of two randomized, placebo-controlled trials. Cancer. 2000; 88(5):1082-1090.
56. Body JJ, Diel IJ, Bell R, et al. Oral ibandronate reduces the risk of skeletal complications in breast cancer patients with metastatic bone disease: results from two randomised, placebo-controlled phase III studies. British Journal of Cancer. 2004;90(6):1133-1137.
57. Tripathy D, Lichinitzer M, Lazarev A, et al. Oral ibandronate for the treatment of metastatic bone disease in breast cancer: efficacy and safety results from a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. [see comment]. Annals of Oncology. 2004;15(5):743-750.
58. Cook RJ, Major P. Methodology for treatment evaluation in patients with cancer metastatic to bone. [see comment]. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 2001;93(7):534-538.
59. Body JJ. Treatment and prevention of bone metastases and myeloma bone disease. 6th ed. Primer on the metabolic bone diseases and disorders of minderal metabolism. American Soceity for Bone and Mineral Research; 2006.
60. Rosen LS, Gordon D, Kaminski M, et al. Zoledronic acid versus pamidronate in the treatment of skeletal metastases in patients with breast cancer or osteolytic lesions of multiple myeloma: a phase III, double-blind, comparative trial. [see comment]. Cancer Journal. 2001;7(5):377-387.
61. Rosen LS, Gordon DH, Dugan W Jr, et al. Zoledronic acid is superior to pamidronate for the treatment of bone metastases in breast carcinoma patients with at least one osteolytic lesion. Cancer. 2004; 100(1):36-43.
62. Body JJ, Lichinitser M, Tjulandin S, Garnero P, Bergstrom B. Oral ibandronate is as active as intravenous zoledronic acid for reducing bone turnover markers in women with breast cancer and bone metastases. [see comment][erratum appears in Ann Oncol. 2008 Mar;19(3):601]. Annals of Oncology. 2007;18(7):1165-1171.
63. National Institute of Health. ClinicalTrials.gov. 2011. [updated 24/10/09]; http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/info/about. Accessed 27/02/11.
64. Kaminski M, Rosen L, Gordon D, Zheng M, Hei YJ. Zoledronic acid versus pamidronate in patients with breast cancer and multiple myeloma who are at high risk for skeletal complications [abstract 857]. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol. 2004;22(14S):90.
65. Hillner BE, Ingle JN, Chlebowski RT, Gralow J, Yee GC, et al. American Society of Clinical Oncology 2003 update on the role of bisphosphonates and bone health issues in women with breast cancer. [erratum appears in J Clin Oncol. 2004 Apr 1;22(7):1351 Note: Dosage error in article text]. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2003;21(21):4042-4057.
66. Aapro M, Abrahamsson PA, Body JJ, et al. Guidance on the use of bisphosphonates in solid tumours: recommendations of an international expert panel. Annals of Oncology. 2008;19(3):420-432.
67. Body JJ, Mancini I. Bisphosphonates for cancer patients: why, how, and when? Supportive Care in Cancer. 2002;10(5):399-407.
68. Woo SB, Hellstein JW, Kalmar JR. Narrative [corrected] review: bisphosphonates and osteonecrosis of the jaws. Ann Intern Med. 2006;144(10):753-761.
69. Hamaoka T, Madewell JE, Podoloff DA, Hortobagyi GN, Ueno NT. Bone imaging in metastatic breast cancer. [see comment]. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2004;22(14):2942-2953.
70. Van Poznak CH, Temin S, Yee GC, et al. American Society of Clinical Oncology Executive Summary of the Clinical Practice Guideline Update on the Role of Bone-Modifying Agents in Metastatic Breast Cancer. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2011.
71. Diel IJ. Effectiveness of bisphosphonates on bone pain and quality of life in breast cancer patients with metastatic bone disease: a review. Supportive Care in Cancer. 2007;15(11):1243-1249.
72. Clinical Practice Committee. Hypercalcemia in malignant disease. Hospice Palliative Care Program: Symptom Guidelines 2006. [cited 24/11/06]. Available from: http://www.fraserhealth.ca/professionals/ resources/hospice_palliative_care/hospice_palliative_care_symptom_ guidelines. Accessed 20/12/10.
73. MIMSAustralia. MIMS Full Prescribing Information. In: Donohoo E, editor. Sydney. MIMS Australia. 2009.
74. Powles T, Paterson S, Kanis JA, et al. Randomized, placebo-controlled trial of clodronate in patients with primary operable breast cancer. [see comment]. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2002;20(15):3219-3224.
75. Body JJ, Diel IJ, Bell R, et al. Intravenous ibandronate reduces the incidence of skeletal complications in patients with breast cancer and bone metastases. [see comment]. Annals of Oncology. 2003;14(9):1399-1405.
76. Lipton A. Denosumab in Breast Cancer. Curr Oncol Rep. 2010 13(1):1-4.
77. Fizazi K, Lipton A, Mariette X, et al. Randomized phase II trial of denosumab in patients with bone metastases from prostate cancer, breast cancer, or other neoplasms after intravenous bisphosphonates. [see comment]. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2009;27(10): 1564-1571.
78. Stopeck AT, Lipton A, Body JJ, et al. Denosumab compared with zoledronic Acid for the treatment of bone metastases in patients with advanced breast cancer: a randomized, double-blind study. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2010;28(35):5132-5139.
79. Coleman RE. Metastatic bone disease: clinical features, pathophysiology and treatment strategies. Cancer Treatment Reviews. 2001;27(3): 165-176.
80. Meuser T, Pietruck C, Radbruch L, Stute P, Lehmann KA, Grond S. Symptoms during cancer pain treatment following WHO-guidelines: a longitudinal follow-up study of symptom prevalence, severity and etiology. Pain. 2001;93(3):247-257.
81. Goblirsch MJ, Zwolak PP, Clohisy DR. Biology of bone cancer pain. Clinical Cancer Research. 2006;12(20 Pt 2):6231s-6235s.
82. Woodruff R. Symptom control in advanced cancer. 2nd ed. 2002, Melbourne: Asperula Pty Ltd.
83. Cleeland CS. The measurement of pain from metastatic bone disease: capturing the patient's experience. Clinical Cancer Research. 2006;12(20 Pt 2):6236s-6242s.
84. Wong R, Wiffen PJ. Bisphosphonates for the relief of pain secondary to bone metastases. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2002;2:CD002068.
85. Clemons MJ, Dranitsaris G, Ooi WS, et al. Phase II trial evaluating the palliative benefit of second-line zoledronic acid in breast cancer patients with either a skeletal-related event or progressive bone metastases despite first-line bisphosphonate therapy. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2006;24(30):4895-4900.
86. Body JJ, Diel IJ, Bell R, et al. Oral ibandronate improves bone pain and preserves quality of life in patients with skeletal metastases due to breast cancer. Pain. 2004;111(3):306-312.
87. Diel IJ, Body JJ, Lichinitser MR, et al. Improved quality of life after long-term treatment with the bisphosphonate ibandronate in patients with metastatic bone disease due to breast cancer. European Journal of Cancer. 2004;40(11):1704-1712.
88. Hoskin PJ. Bisphosphonates and radiation therapy for palliation of metastatic bone disease. Cancer Treatment Reviews. 2003;29(4): 321-327.
89. Chow E, Harris K, Fan G, Tsao M, Sze WM. Palliative radiotherapy trials for bone metastases: a systematic review. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2007;25(11):1423-1436.
90. Chow E, Makhani L, Culleton S, et al. Would larger radiation fields lead to a faster onset of pain relief in the palliation of bone metastases? International Journal of Radiation Oncology Biology Physics. 2009;74(5):1563-1566.
91. Ural AU, Avcu F, Baran Y. Bisphosphonate treatment and radiotherapy in metastatic breast cancer. Medical Oncology. 2008;25(3): 350-355.
92. Fairchild A, Chow E. Role of radiation therapy and radiopharmaceuticals in bone metastases. Curr Opin Support Palliat Care. 2007;1(3): 169-173.
93. Bauman G, Charette M, Reid R, Sathya J. Radiopharmaceuticals for the palliation of painful bone metastasis-a systemic review. Radiotherapy and Oncology. 2005;75(3):258-270.
94. Baczyk M, Czepczynski R, Milecki P, Pisarek M, Oleksa R, Sowinski J. 89Sr versus 153Sm-EDTMP: comparison of treatment efficacy of painful bone metastases in prostate and breast carcinoma. Nuclear Medicine Communications. 2007;28(4):245-250.
95. Plunkett TA, Smith P, Rubens RD. Risk of complications from bone metastases in breast cancer. implications for management. European Journal of Cancer. 2000;36(4):476-482.
96. Hill ME, Richards MA, Gregory WM, Smith P, Rubens RD. Spinal cord compression in breast cancer: a review of 70 cases. British Journal of Cancer. 1993;68(5):969-973.
97. Patchell RA, Tibbs PA, Regine WF, et al. Direct decompressive surgical resection in the treatment of spinal cord compression caused by metastatic cancer: a randomised trial. [see comment]. Lancet. 2005;366(9486):643-648.
98. Nabholtz JM, Falkson C, Campos D, et al. Docetaxel and doxorubicin compared with doxorubicin and cyclophosphamide as first-line chemotherapy for metastatic breast cancer: results of a randomized, multicenter, phase III trial. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2003;21(6): 968-975.
99. Sledge GW, Neuberg D, Bernardo P, et al. Phase III trial of doxorubicin, paclitaxel, and the combination of doxorubicin and paclitaxel as front-line chemotherapy for metastatic breast cancer: an intergroup trial (E1193). Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2003;21(4):588-592.
100. Gradishar WJ, Tjulandin S, Davidson N, et al. Phase III trial of nanoparticle albumin-bound paclitaxel compared with polyethylated castor oil-based paclitaxel in women with breast cancer. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2005;23(31):7794-7803.
101. O'Shaughnessy J, Miles D, Vukelja S, et al. Superior survival with capecitabine plus docetaxel combination therapy in anthracyclinepretreated patients with advanced breast cancer: phase III trial results. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2002;20(12):2812-2823.
102. Keller AM, Mennel RG, Georgoulias VA, et al. Randomized phase III trial of pegylated liposomal doxorubicin versus vinorelbine or mitomycin C plus vinblastine in women with taxane-refractory advanced breast cancer. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2004;22(19):3893-3901.
103. Sparano JA, Vrdoljak E, Rixe O, et al. Randomized phase III trial of ixabepilone plus capecitabine versus capecitabine in patients with metastatic breast cancer previously treated with an anthracycline and a taxane. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2010;28(20):3256-3263.
104. Hess KR, Pusztai L, Buzdar AU, Hortobagyi GN. Estrogen receptors and distinct patterns of breast cancer relapse. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2003;78(1):105-118.
105. Smid M, Wang Y, Zhang Y, et al. Subtypes of breast cancer show preferential site of relapse. Cancer Res. 2008;68(9):3108-3114.
106. McCafferty MP, McNeill RE, Miller N, Kerin MJ. Interactions between the estrogen receptor, its cofactors and microRNAs in breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2009;116(3):425-432.
107. Gibson L, Lawrence D, Dawson C, Bliss J. Aromatase inhibitors for treatment of advanced breast cancer in postmenopausal women. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2009;4:CD003370.
108. Kaufmann M, Bajetta E, Dirix LY, et al. Exemestane is superior to megestrol acetate after tamoxifen failure in postmenopausal women with advanced breast cancer: results of a phase III randomized double-blind trial. The Exemestane Study Group. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2000;18(7):1399-1411.
109. Dombernowsky P, Smith I, Falkson G, et al. Letrozole, a new oral aromatase inhibitor for advanced breast cancer: double-blind randomized trial showing a dose effect and improved efficacy and tolerability compared with megestrol acetate. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 1998;16(2):453-461.
110. Buzdar A, Douma J, Davidson N, et al. Phase III, multicenter, doubleblind, randomized study of letrozole, an aromatase inhibitor, for advanced breast cancer versus megestrol acetate. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2001;19(14):3357-3366.
111. Rose C, Vtoraya O, Pluzanska A, et al. An open randomised trial of second-line endocrine therapy in advanced breast cancer. comparison of the aromatase inhibitors letrozole and anastrozole. Eur J Cancer. 2003;39(16):2318-2327.
112. Osborne CK, Pippen J, Jones SE, et al. Double-blind, randomized trial comparing the efficacy and tolerability of fulvestrant versus anastrozole in postmenopausal women with advanced breast cancer progressing on prior endocrine therapy: results of a North American trial. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2002;20(16):3386-3395.
113. Howell A, Pippen J, Elledge RM, et al. Fulvestrant versus anastrozole for the treatment of advanced breast carcinoma: a prospectively planned combined survival analysis of two multicenter trials. Cancer. 2005;104(2):236-239.
114. Shannon C, Bassanelli D, De Boer R, McCarthy E, Rice J, Yates P. Recommendations for use of endocrine therapy for the treatment of hormone receptor-positive advanced breast cancer. NBOCC: NSW; 2008.
115. Beslija S, Bonneterre J, Burstein HJ, et al. Third consensus on medical treatment of metastatic breast cancer. Annals of Oncology. 2009;20(11):1771-1785.
116. Guarneri V, Conte P. Metastatic breast cancer: therapeutic options according to molecular subtypes and prior adjuvant therapy. Oncologist. 2009;14(7):645-656.
117. Winter MC, Holen I, Coleman RE. Exploring the anti-tumour activity of bisphosphonates in early breast cancer. Cancer Treatment Reviews. 2008;34(5):453-475.
118. Mundy GR, Yoneda T, Hiraga T. Preclinical studies with zoledronic acid and other bisphosphonates: impact on the bone microenvironment. Seminars in Oncology. 2001;28(2 Suppl 6):35-44.
119. Hiraga T, Williams PJ, Ueda A, Tamura D, Yoneda T. Zoledronic acid inhibits visceral metastases in the 4T1/luc mouse breast cancer model. Clinical Cancer Research. 2004;10(13):4559-4567.
120. Santini D, Martini F, Fratto ME, et al. In vivo effects of zoledronic acid on peripheral gammadelta T lymphocytes in early breast cancer patients. Cancer Immunology Immunotherapy. 2009;58(1):31-38.
121. Neville-Webbe HL, Rostami-Hodjegan A, Evans CA, Coleman RE, Holen I. Sequence- and schedule-dependent enhancement of zoledronic acid induced apoptosis by doxorubicin in breast and prostate cancer cells. International Journal of Cancer. 2005;113(3): 364-371.
122. Diel IJ, Solomayer EF, Costa SD, et al. Reduction in new metastases in breast cancer with adjuvant clodronate treatment. [see comment]. New England Journal of Medicine. 1998;339(6):357-363.
123. Saarto T, Vehmanen L, Virkkunen P, Blomqvist C. Ten-year follow-up of a randomized controlled trial of adjuvant clodronate treatment in node-positive breast cancer patients. Acta Oncol. 2004; 43(7):650-656.
124. Diel LJ, Jaschke A, Solomayer EF, et al. Adjuvant oral clodronate improves the overall survival of primary breast cancer patients with micrometastases to the bone marrow - A long-term follow-up. Annals of Oncology. 2008;19(12):2007-2011.
125. Powles T, Paterson A, McCloskey E, et al. Reduction in bone relapse and improved survival with oral clodronate for adjuvant treatment of operable breast cancer [ISRCTN83688026]. [erratum appears in Breast Cancer Res. 2006;8(3):406]. Breast Cancer Research. 2006; 8(2):R13.
126. Saarto T, Blomqvist C, Virkkunen P, Elomaa I. Adjuvant clodronate treatment does not reduce the frequency of skeletal metastases in node-positive breast cancer patients: 5-year results of a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2001;19(1):10-17.
127. Ha TC, Li H. Meta-analysis of clodronate and breast cancer survival. British Journal of Cancer. 2007;96(12):1796-1801.
128. Gnant M, Mlineritsch B, Schippinger W, et al. Endocrine therapy plus zoledronic acid in premenopausal breast cancer. New England Journal of Medicine. 2009;360(7):679-691.
129. Coleman RE. Adjuvant bisphosphonates in breast cancer: are we witnessing the emergence of a new therapeutic strategy? European Journal of Cancer. 2009;45(11):1909-1915.
130. Gnant M, Mlineritsch B, Luschin-Ebengreuth G, et al. Adjuvant endocrine therapy plus zoledronic acid in premenopausal women with early-stage breast cancer: 5-year follow-up of the ABCSG-12 bonemineral density substudy. Lancet Oncology. 2008;9(9):840-849.
131. Eidtmann H, de Boer R, Bundred N, et al. Efficacy of zoledronic acid in postmenopausal women with early breast cancer receiving adjuvant letrozole: 36-month results of the ZO-FAST Study. Annals of Oncology. 2010;21(11):2188-2194.
132. Brufsky AM, Bosserman LD, Caradonna RR, et al. Zoledronic acid effectively prevents aromatase inhibitor-associated bone loss in postmenopausal women with early breast cancer receiving adjuvant letrozole: Z-FAST study 36-month follow-up results. Clin Breast Cancer. 2009;9(2):77-85.
133. Brufsky A, Bundred N, Coleman R, et al. Integrated analysis of zoledronic acid for prevention of aromatase inhibitor-associated bone loss in postmenopausal women with early breast cancer receiving adjuvant letrozole. Oncologist. 2008;13(5):503-514.
134. Winter M, Thorpe H, Burkinshaw R, Beevers SJ, Coleman RE. The addition of zoledronic acid to neoadjuvant chemotherapy may influence pathological response - exploratory evidence for direct anti-tumor activity in breast cancer. Cancer Research. 2009; 69(2 Suppl):Abstract 5101.
135. Coleman RE, Thorpe HC, Cameron D, et al. Adjuvant Treatment with Zoledronic Acid in Stage II/III Breast Cancer. The AZURE Trial (BIG 01/04). in 33rd Annual San Antonio Breast Cancer Symposium. San Antonio; 2010.
136. Chustecka Z. AZURE: Zolendronic Acid Effect on Breast Cancer Is Complicated; 33rd Annual San Antonio Breast Cancer Symposium (SABCS). Medscape news 2010. [updated 10/12/10]; http://www. medscape.com/viewarticle/733978. Accessed 10/11/11.
137. Jensen AO, Jacobsen JB, Norgaard M, Yong M, Fryzek JP, Sorensen HT. Incidence of bone metastases and skeletal-related events in breast cancer patients: A population-based cohort study in Denmark. BMC Cancer. 2011;11:29.
138. Rose AA, Siegel PM. Emerging therapeutic targets in breast cancer bone metastasis. Future Oncol. 2010;6(1):55-74.
139. Lipton A. Denosumab in breast cancer. Curr Oncol Rep. 2010;13(1): 1-4.
140. Fizazi K, Carducci M, Smith M, et al. Denosumab versus zoledronic acid for treatment of bone metastases in men with castrationresistant prostate cancer: a randomised, double-blind study. The Lancet Published Online February 25;2011 DOI:10.1016/S0140- 6736(10)62344-62011. [cited. Accessed February 25, 2011.
141. Padua D, Zhang XH, Wang Q, et al. TGFbeta primes breast tumors for lung metastasis seeding through angiopoietin-like 4. Cell. 2008; 133(1):66-77.
142. Petersen M, Pardali E, van der Horst G, et al. Smad2 and Smad3 have opposing roles in breast cancer bone metastasis by differentially affecting tumor angiogenesis. Oncogene. 2010;29(9):1351-1361.
143. Tan AR, Alexe G, Reiss M. Transforming growth factor-beta signaling: emerging stem cell target in metastatic breast cancer? Breast Cancer Research and Treatment. 2009;115(3):453-495.
144. Di Cosimo S, Baselga J. Targeted therapies in breast cancer: where are we now? Eur J Cancer. 2008;44(18):2781-2790.
145. Hiscox S, Barrett-Lee P, Borley AC, Nicholson RI. Combining Src inhibitors and aromatase inhibitors: a novel strategy for overcoming endocrine resistance and bone loss. Eur J Cancer. 2010;46(12): 2187-2195.
146. Kleer CG, Bloushtain-Qimron N, Chen YH, et al. Epithelial and stromal cathepsin K and CXCL14 expression in breast tumor progression. Clinical Cancer Research. 2008;14(17):5357-5367.
147. Jensen AB, Olmeo N, Wynne C, et al. Effect of cathepsin k inhibition on suppression of bone resorption in women with breast cancer and established bone metastases in a 4-week, double-blind, randomized controlled trial. J Clin Oncol. 2008 May;20 Suppl:Abstr 4508.
148. Wong D, Korz W. Translating an Antagonist of Chemokine Receptor CXCR4: from bench to bedside. Clinical Cancer Research. 2008; 14(24):7975-7980.
149. Lipton A. Future treatment of bone metastases. Clinical Cancer Research. 2006;12(20 Pt 2):6305s-6308s.
150. Strube A, Hoffmann J, Stepina E, Hauff P, Klar U, Kakonen SM. Sagopilone inhibits breast cancer bone metastasis and bone destruction due to simultaneous inhibition of both tumor growth and bone resorption. Clinical Cancer Research. 2009;15(11):3751-3759.
151. Bohn OL, Nasir I, Brufsky A, et al. Biomarker profile in breast carcinomas presenting with bone metastasis. Int J Clin Exp Pathol. 2010;3(2):139-146.
152. Woelfle U, Cloos J, Sauter G, et al. Molecular signature associated with bone marrow micrometastasis in human breast cancer. Cancer Res. 2003;63(18):5679-5684.
153. Smid M, Wang Y, Klijn JG, et al. Genes associated with breast cancer metastatic to bone. [see comment]. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2006;24(15):2261-2267.
154. Gast MC, Schellens JH, Beijnen JH. Clinical proteomics in breast cancer: a review. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2009;116(1):17-29.
155. Harris L, Fritsche H, Mennel R, et al. American Society of Clinical Oncology 2007 update of recommendations for the use of tumor markers in breast cancer. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2007;25(33):5287-5312.
156. Brown JE, Cook RJ, Lipton A, Costa L, Coleman RE. Prognostic factors for skeletal complications from metastatic bone disease in breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2010;123(3):767-779.
157. Clemons M, Dranitsaris G, Cole D, Gainford MC. Too much, too little, too late to start again? Assessing the efficacy of bisphosphonates in patients with bone metastases from breast cancer. Oncologist. 2006;11(3):227-233.
158. Brown JE, Thomson CS, Ellis SP, Gutcher SA, Purohit OP, Coleman RE. Bone resorption predicts for skeletal complications in metastatic bone disease. British Journal of Cancer. 2003;89(11):2031-2037.
159. Coleman RE, Major P, Lipton A, et al. Predictive value of bone resorption and formation markers in cancer patients with bone metastases receiving the bisphosphonate zoledronic acid. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2005;23(22):4925-4935.
160. Lipton A. Biochemical bone markers in breast cancer. Cancer Treatment Reviews. 2006;32 Suppl 1:20-22.
161. Lopez-Carrizosa MC, Samper-Ots PM, Perez AR. Serum C-telopeptide levels predict the incidence of skeletal-related events in cancer patients with secondary bone metastases. Clin Transl Oncol. 2010; 12(8):568-573.
162. Carlson R, Anderson B, Burstein H, et al. Breast Cancer. NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology 2011. [cited 5/1/11]. Available from: http://www.nccn.org/professionals/physician_gls/f_ guidelines.asp. Accessed 25/2/11.
163. Khatcheressian JL, Wolff AC, Smith TJ, et al. American Society of Clinical Oncology 2006 update of the breast cancer follow-up and management guidelines in the adjuvant setting. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2006;24(31):5091-5097.
164. Rojas MP, Telaro E, Russo A, et al. Follow-up strategies for women treated for early breast cancer. [update of Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000;4:CD001768; PMID: 11034727]. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2005;1:CD001768.
165. Marguiles AG, Klimberg VS, Bhattacharrya S, Gaddy D, Suva LJ. Genomics and proteomics of bone cancer. Clinical Cancer Research. 2006;12(20):6217s-6221s.
166. Fateh-Moghadam A, Stieber P. Sensible use of tumour markers. Munich: Jurgen Hartmann Verlag GmbH; 1993.
167. Siemionow K, Lieberman IH. Vertebral augmentation in osteoporosis and bone metastasis. Current Opinion in Supportive and Palliative Care. 2007;1(4):323-327.
168. Saad F. Optimizing patient therapy: the role of bone markers? Cancer Treatment Reviews. 2006;32 Suppl 1:3-6.
169. Brufsky A, Bundred N, Coleman R, et al. Integrated analysis of zoledronic acid for prevention of aromatase inhibitor-associated bone loss in postmenopausal women with early breast cancer receiving adjuvant letrozole. Oncologist. 2008;13(5):503-514.